001

TableofContents

TitlePage
Acknowledgements
Foreword
PREFACE
LISTOFABBREVIATIONS
KEYTOTHEPRONUNCIATIONOFPĀLI
Introduction

I.TheHumanCondition
INTRODUCTION
I.THEHUMANCONDITION

II.TheBringerofLight
INTRODUCTION
II.THEBRINGEROFLIGHT

III.ApproachingtheDhamma
INTRODUCTION
III.APPROACHINGTHEDHAMMA

IV.TheHappinessVisibleinThisPresentLife
INTRODUCTION
IV.THEHAPPINESSVISIBLEINTHISPRESENTLIFE

V.TheWaytoaFortunateRebirth
INTRODUCTION
V.THEWAYTOAFORTUNATEREBIRTH


VI.DeepeningOne’sPerspectiveontheWorld
INTRODUCTION
VI.DEEPENINGONE’SPERSPECTIVEONTHEWORLD

VII.ThePathtoLiberation
INTRODUCTION
VII.THEPATHTOLIBERATION

VIII.MasteringtheMind
INTRODUCTION
VIII.MASTERINGTHEMIND

IX.ShiningtheLightofWisdom
INTRODUCTION
IX.SHININGTHELIGHTOFWISDOM

X.ThePlanesofRealization
INTRODUCTION
X.THEPLANESOFREALIZATION

NOTES
TABLEOFSOURCES
GLOSSARY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEXOFSUBJECTS
INDEXOFSIMILES
INDEXOFPĀLITERMSDISCUSSEDINTHENOTES
AbouttheAuthor
AboutWisdom
CopyrightPage

Tamed,heissupremeamongthosewhotame;

Atpeace,heisthesageamongthosewhobringpeace;

Freed,heisthechiefofthosewhosetfree;

Delivered,heisthebestofthosewhodeliver.

—AṅguttaraNikāya4:23

PUBLISHER’SACKNOWLEDGMENT

For their help in sponsoring the printingof thisbook, the publishergratefully

acknowledgesthegeneroushelpoftheHersheyFamilyFoundationandthekind

contributionmadeinlovingmemoryofGanChinHongbyhisfamily.

FOREWORD

Morethantwothousandfivehundredyearshavepassedsinceourkindteacher,

BuddhaŚākyamuni,taughtinIndia.Heofferedadvicetoallwhowishedtoheed

it,invitingthemtolisten,reflect,andcriticallyexaminewhathehadtosay.He

addresseddifferentindividualsandgroupsofpeopleoveraperiodofmorethan

fortyyears.

AftertheBuddha’spassing,arecordof what he said was maintained as an

oral tradition. Those who heard the teachings would periodically meet with

othersforcommunalrecitationsofwhattheyhadheardandmemorized.Indue

course,theserecitationsfrommemorywerewrittendown,layingthebasisforall

subsequent Buddhist literature. The Pāli Canon is one of the earliest of these

written records and the only complete early version that has survived intact.

WithinthePāliCanon,thetextsknownastheNikāyashavethespecialvalueof

beingasinglecohesivecollectionoftheBuddha’steachingsinhisownwords.

These teachings cover a wide range of topics; they deal not only with

renunciationandliberation,butalsowiththeproperrelationsbetweenhusbands

andwives,themanagementofthehousehold,andthewaycountriesshouldbe

governed.Theyexplainthepathofspiritualdevelopment—fromgenerosityand

ethics,throughmindtrainingandtherealizationofwisdom,allthewayuptothe

attainmentofliberation.

The teachings from the Nikāyas collected here provide fascinating insights

intohowtheBuddha’steachingswerestudied,preserved,andunderstoodinthe

early days of Buddhism’s development. Modern readers will find them

especiallyvaluableforreinvigoratingandclarifyingtheirunderstandingofmany

fundamental Buddhist doctrines. Clearly the Buddha’s essential message of

compassion, ethical responsibility, mental tranquillity, and discernment is as

relevanttodayasitwasmorethantwenty-fivehundredyearsago.

AlthoughBuddhismspreadandtookrootinmanypartsofAsia,evolvinginto

diversetraditionsaccordingtotheplaceandoccasion,distanceanddifferences

oflanguagelimitedexchangebetweenBuddhistsinthepast.Oneoftheresults

ofmodernimprovementsintransportandcommunicationthatImostappreciate

isthevastlyexpandedopportunitiesthoseinterestedinBuddhismnowhaveto

acquaintthemselveswiththefullrangeofBuddhistteachingandpractice.What

I find especially encouraging about this book is that it shows so clearly how

muchfundamentally all schools of Buddhism have in common. I congratulate

BhikkhuBodhiforthiscarefulworkofcompilationandtranslation.Ioffermy

prayers that readers may find advice here—and the inspiration to put it into

practice—that will enable them to develop inner peace, which I believe is

essentialforthecreationofahappierandmorepeacefulworld.

VenerableTenzinGyatso,theFourteenthDalaiLamaMay10,2005

PREFACE

TheBuddha’sdiscoursespreservedinthePāliCanonarecalledsuttas,thePāli

equivalent of the Sanskrit word sūtras.Although the Pāli Canon belongs to a

particularBuddhistschool—theTheravāda,orSchooloftheElders—thesuttas

are by no means exclusively Theravāda Buddhist texts. They stem from the

earliestperiod of Buddhist literary history,a period lasting roughly a hundred

yearsaftertheBuddha’sdeath,beforetheoriginalBuddhistcommunitydivided

into different schools. The Pāli suttas have counterparts from other early

Buddhist schools now extinct, texts sometimes strikingly similar to the Pāli

version, differing mainly in settings and arrangements but not in points of

doctrine. The suttas, along with their counterparts, thus constitute the most

ancientrecordsoftheBuddha’steachingsavailabletous;theyaretheclosestwe

can come to what the historical Buddha Gotama himself actually taught. The

teachingsfoundinthemhaveservedasthefountainhead,theprimalsource,for

alltheevolvingstreamsofBuddhistdoctrineandpracticethroughthecenturies.

For this reason, they constitute the common heritage of the entire Buddhist

tradition, and Buddhists of all schools who wish to understand the taproot of

Buddhismshouldmakeacloseandcarefulstudyofthemapriority.

InthePāliCanontheBuddha’sdiscoursesarepreservedincollectionscalled

Nikāyas.Overthepasttwentyyears,freshtranslationsofthefourmajorNikāyas

have appeared in print, issued in attractive and affordable editions. Wisdom

Publications pioneered this development in 1987 when it published Maurice

Walshe’stranslationoftheDīghaNikāya,TheLongDiscoursesoftheBuddha.

Wisdomfollowedthisprecedentbybringingout,in1995,myrevisedandedited

versionofBhikkhuÑāṇamoli’shandwrittentranslationoftheMajjhimaNikāya,

The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, followed in 2000 by my new

translationofthecompleteSaṃyuttaNikāya,TheConnectedDiscoursesofthe

Buddha. In 1999, under the imprint of The Sacred Literature Trust Series,

AltaMira Press published an anthology of suttas from the Aṅguttara Nikāya,

translated by the late Nyanaponika Thera and myself, titled Numerical

DiscoursesoftheBuddha.Iamcurrentlyworkingonanewtranslationofthe

entireAṅguttara Nikāya, intended for Wisdom Publication’s Teachings of the

Buddhaseries.

Manywhohavereadtheselargerworkshavetoldme,tomysatisfaction,that

the translations brought the suttas to life for them. Yet others who earnestly

soughttoenterthedeepoceanoftheNikāyastoldmesomethingelse.Theysaid

thatwhilethelanguageofthetranslationsmadethemfarmoreaccessiblethan

earliertranslations,theywerestillgrapplingforastandpointfromwhichtosee

thesuttas’overallstructure,aframeworkwithinwhichtheyallfittogether.The

Nikāyasthemselvesdonotoffermuchhelpinthisrespect,fortheirarrangement

—with the notable exception of the Saṃyutta Nikāya, which does have a

thematicstructure—appearsalmosthaphazard.

InanongoingseriesoflecturesIbegangivingatBodhiMonasteryinNew

JerseyinJanuary2003,Idevisedaschemeofmyowntoorganizethecontents

of the Majjhima Nikāya. This scheme unfolds the Buddha’s message

progressively, from the simple to the difficult, from the elementary to the

profound.Uponreflection,Isawthatthisschemecouldbeappliednotonlyto

the Majjhima Nikāya, but to the four Nikāyas as a whole. The present book

organizes suttas selected from all four Nikāyas within this thematic and

progressiveframework.

This book is intended for two types of readers. The first are those not yet

acquainted with the Buddha’s discourses who feel the need for a systematic

introduction.Forsuchreaders,anyoftheNikāyasisboundtoappearopaque.All

four of them, viewed at once, may seem like a jungle—entangling and

bewildering,fullofunknownbeasts—orlikethegreatocean—vast,tumultuous,

andforbidding.Ihopethatthisbookwillserveasamaptohelpthemwendtheir

waythroughthejungleofthesuttasorasasturdyshiptocarrythemacrossthe

oceanoftheDhamma.

Thesecond type of readers forwhom this bookis meant are those, already

acquainted with the suttas, who still cannot see how they fit together into an

intelligiblewhole.Forsuchreaders,individualsuttasmaybecomprehensiblein

themselves,butthetextsintheirtotalityappearlikepiecesofajigsawpuzzle

scattered across a table. Once one understands the scheme in this book, one

shouldcome away with a clearidea of thearchitecture ofthe teaching. Then,

with a little reflection, one should be able to determine the place any sutta

occupiesintheedificeoftheDhamma,whetherornotithasbeenincludedin

thisanthology.

This anthology, or any other anthology of suttas, is no substitute for the

Nikāyas themselves. My hope is twofold, corresponding to the two types of

readersforwhomthisvolumeisdesigned:(1)thatnewcomerstoEarlyBuddhist

literaturefindthisvolumewhetstheirappetiteformoreandencouragesthemto

take the plunge into the full Nikāyas; and (2) that experienced readers of the

Nikāyasfinishthebookwithabetterunderstandingofmaterialwithwhichthey

arealreadyfamiliar.

Ifthisanthologyismeanttomakeanyotherpoint,itistoconveythesheer

breadthandrangeoftheBuddha’swisdom.WhileEarlyBuddhismissometimes

depictedasadisciplineofworldrenunciationintendedprimarilyforasceticsand

contemplatives,theancientdiscoursesofthePāliCanonclearlyshowushowthe

Buddha’swisdomandcompassionreachedintotheverydepthsofmundanelife,

providing ordinary people with guidelines for proper conduct and right

understanding.Far from being a creed for a monastic élite, ancient Buddhism

involvedtheclosecollaborationofhouseholdersandmonasticsinthetwintasks

ofmaintainingtheBuddha’steachingsandassistingoneanotherintheirefforts

towalkthepathtotheextinctionofsuffering.Tofulfillthesetasksmeaningfully,

the Dhamma had to provide them with deep and inexhaustible guidance,

inspiration, joy, and consolation. It could never have done this if it had not

directlyaddressedtheirearnesteffortstocombinesocialandfamilyobligations

withanaspirationtorealizethehighest.

Almost all the passages included in this book have been selected from the

above-mentionedpublications of thefour Nikāyas.Almost all have undergone

revisions,usuallyslightbutsometimesmajor,toaccordwithmyownevolving

understandingofthetextsandthePālilanguage.Ihavenewlytranslatedasmall

number of suttas from the Aṅguttara Nikāya not included in the above-

mentionedanthology.IhavealsoincludedahandfulofsuttasfromtheUdāna

and Itivuttaka, two small books belonging to the fifth Nikāya, the Khuddaka

Nikāya,theMinororMiscellaneousCollection.IhavebasedtheseonJohnD.

Ireland’stranslation,publishedbytheBuddhistPublicationSocietyinSriLanka,

but again I have freely modified them to fit my own preferred diction and

terminology. Ihave givenpreferenceto suttasin proseover those inverse, as

being more direct and explicit. When a sutta concludes with verses, if these

merelyrestatetheprecedingprose,intheinterestofspaceIhaveomittedthem.

Each chapter begins with an introduction in which I explain the salient

conceptsrelevant tothe themeof the chapter and tryto show how the textsI

have chosen exemplify that theme. To clarify points arising from both the

introductionsandthe texts,I haveincluded end-notes. Theseoften drawupon

the classical commentaries to the Nikāyas ascribed to the great South Indian

commentator Ācariya Buddhaghosa, who worked in Sri Lanka in the fifth

centuryC.E.Forthesakeofconcision,Ihavenotincludedasmanynotesinthis

bookasIhaveinmyothertranslationsoftheNikāyas.Thesenotesarealsonot

astechnicalasthoseinthefulltranslations.

Referencestothesourcesfolloweachselection.Referencestotextsfromthe

DīghaNikāyaandMajjhimaNikāyacitethenumberandnameofthesutta(in

Pāli);passagesfromthesetwocollectionsretaintheparagraphnumbersusedin

TheLongDiscoursesoftheBuddhaandThe Middle Length Discourses of the

Buddha,soreaderswhowishtolocatethesepassageswithinthefulltranslations

can easily do so. References to texts from the Saṃyutta Nikāya citesaṃyutta

andsuttanumber;textsfromtheAṅguttaraNikāyacitenipātaandsuttanumber

(theOnesandtheTwosalsocitechapterswithinthenipātafollowedbythesutta

number).ReferencestotextsfromtheUdānacitenipātaandsuttanumber;texts

fromtheItivuttakacitesimplythesuttanumber.Allreferencesarefollowedby

thevolumeandpagenumberinthePaliTextSociety’sstandardeditionofthese

works.

I am grateful to Timothy McNeill and David Kittelstrom of Wisdom

Publicationsforurgingmetopersistwiththisprojectinthefaceoflongperiods

of indifferent health. SāmaṇeraAnālayo and Bhikkhu Nyanasobhano read and

commentedonmyintroductions,andJohnKellyreviewedproofsoftheentire

book.Allthreemadeusefulsuggestions,forwhichIamgrateful.JohnKellyalso

preparedthetableofsourcesthatappearsatthebackofthebook.Finally,Iam

gratefultomystudentsofPāliandDhammastudiesatBodhiMonasteryfortheir

enthusiastic interest in the teachings of the Nikāyas, which inspired me to

compilethisanthology.Iamespeciallythankfultothemonastery’sextraordinary

founder, Ven. Master Jen-Chun, for welcoming a monk of another Buddhist

tradition to his monastery and for his interest in bridging the Northern and

SoutherntransmissionsoftheEarlyBuddhistteachings.

BhikkhuBodhi

LISTOFABBREVIATIONS

AN AṅguttaraNikāya

Be Burmese-scriptChaṭṭhaSaṅgāyanaed.

Ce Sinhala-scripted.

DN DīghaNikāya

Ee Roman-scripted.(PTS)

It Itivuttaka

MN MajjhimaNikāya

Mp Manorathapūraṇī(AṅguttaraNikāyaCommentary)

Ppn PathofPurification(Visuddhimaggatranslation)

Ps Papañcasūdanī(MajjhimaNikāyaCommentary)

Ps-pṭ Papañcasūdanī-purāṇa-ṭīkā(MajjhimaNikāyaSubcommentary)

Skt Sanskrit

SN SaṃyuttaNikāya

Spk Sāratthappakāsinī(SaṃyuttaNikāyaCommentary)

Spk-pṭ Sāratthappakāsinī-purāṇa-ṭīkā(SaṃyuttaNikāyaSubcommentary)

Sv Sumaṅgalavilāsinī(DīghaNikāyaCommentary)

Ud Udāna

Vibh Vibhaṅga

Vin Vinaya

Vism Visuddhimagga

All page references to Pāli texts are to the page numbers of the Pali Text

Society’seditions.

KEYTOTHEPRONUNCIATIONOFPĀLI

ThePāliAlphabet

Vowels:a,ā,i,ī,u,ū,e,o

Consonants:

Gutterals k,kh,g,gh,ṅ

Palatals c,ch,j,jh,ñ

Cerebrals ṭ,ṭh,ḍ,ḍh,ṇ

Dentals t,th,d,dh,n

Labials p,ph,b,bh,m

Other y,r,ḷ,l,v,s,h,ṃ

Pronunciation

aasin“cut” uasin“put”

āasin“father” ūasin“rule”

iasin“king” easin“way”

īasin“keen” oasin“home”

Ofthe vowels, eand o are long before a single consonant and short before a

doubleconsonant.Amongtheconsonants,gisalwayspronouncedasin“good,”

casin“church,”ñasin“onion.”Thecerebrals(orretroflexes)arespokenwith

thetongueontheroofofthemouth;thedentalswiththetongueontheupper

teeth.Theaspirates—kh,gh,ch,jh,ṭh,ḍh,th,dh,ph,bh—aresingleconsonants

pronounced with slightly more force than the nonaspirates, e.g., th as in

“Thomas” (not as in “thin”); ph as in “putter” (not as in “phone”). Double

consonantsarealwaysenunciatedseparately,e.g.,ddasin“maddog,”ggasin

“biggun.”Thepurenasal(niggahīta)ṃispronouncedlikethengin“song.”An

oandanealwayscarryastress;otherwisethestressfallsonalongvowel—ā,ī,

,—oronadoubleconsonant,oronṃ.

GENERALINTRODUCTION

UNCOVERINGTHESTRUCTUREOFTHE

TEACHING

Though his teaching is highly systematic, there is no single text that can be

ascribedtotheBuddhainwhichhedefinesthearchitectureoftheDhamma,the

scaffoldinguponwhichhehasframedhisspecificexpressionsofthedoctrine.In

the course of his long ministry, the Buddha taught in different ways as

determined by occasion and circumstances. Sometimes he would enunciate

invariableprinciplesthatstandattheheartoftheteaching.Sometimeshewould

adapttheteachingtoaccordwiththeproclivitiesandaptitudesofthepeoplewho

came to him for guidance. Sometimes he would adjust his exposition to fit a

situation that required a particular response. But throughout the collections of

textsthathavecomedowntousasauthorized“WordoftheBuddha,”wedonot

findasinglesutta,asinglediscourse,inwhichtheBuddhahasdrawntogether

all the elements of his teaching and assigned them to their appropriate place

withinsomecomprehensivesystem.

While in a literate culture in which systematic thought is highly prized the

lackofsuchatextwithaunifyingfunctionmightbeviewedasadefect,inan

entirelyoralculture—aswasthecultureinwhichtheBuddhalivedandmoved—

the lack of a descriptive key to the Dhamma would hardly be considered

significant.Withinthiscultureneitherteachernorstudentaimedatconceptual

completeness.Theteacherdidnotintendtopresentacompletesystemofideas;

hispupilsdidnotaspiretolearnacompletesystemofideas.Theaimthatunited

them in the process of learning—the process of transmission—was that of

practical training, self-transformation, the realization of truth, and unshakable

liberation of the mind. This does not mean, however, that the teaching was

alwaysexpedientlyadaptedtothesituationathand.AttimestheBuddhawould

presentmorepanoramicviewsoftheDhammathatunitedmanycomponentsof

the path in a graded or wide-ranging structure. But though there are several

discoursesthatexhibitabroadscope,theystilldonotembraceallelementsof

theDhammainoneoverarchingscheme.

Thepurposeofthepresentbookistodevelopandexemplifysuchascheme.I

hereattempttoprovideacomprehensivepictureoftheBuddha’steachingthat

incorporatesawidevarietyofsuttasintoanorganicstructure.Thisstructure,I

hope, will bring to light the intentional pattern underlying the Buddha’s

formulation of the Dhamma and thus provide the reader with guidelines for

understanding Early Buddhism as a whole. I have selected the suttas almost

entirelyfromthefourmajorcollectionsorNikāyasofthePāliCanon,thoughI

havealsoincludedafewtextsfromtheUdānaandItivuttaka,twosmallbooksof

the fifth collection, the Khuddaka Nikāya. Each chapter opens with its own

introduction,inwhichIexplainthebasicconceptsofEarlyBuddhismthatthe

textsexemplifyandshowhowthetextsgiveexpressiontotheseideas.

Iwillbrieflysupplybackgroundinformation about theNikāyaslaterinthis

introduction.First,however,IwanttooutlinetheschemethatIhavedevisedto

organizethesuttas.Althoughmyparticularuseofthisschememaybeoriginal,it

is not sheer innovation but is based upon a threefold distinction that the Pāli

commentaries make among the types of benefits to which the practice of the

Dhammaleads:(1)welfareandhappinessvisibleinthispresentlife;(2)welfare

andhappinesspertainingtofuturelives;and(3)theultimategood,Nibbāna(Skt:

nirṿ̄a).

Threepreliminarychaptersaredesignedtoleaduptothosethatembodythis

threefoldscheme.ChapterIisasurveyofthehumanconditionasitisapartfrom

theappearanceofaBuddhaintheworld.Perhapsthiswasthewayhumanlife

appeared to the Bodhisatta—the future Buddha—as he dwelled in the Tusita

heaven gazing down upon the earth, awaiting the appropriate occasion to

descendandtakehisfinalbirth.Webeholdaworldinwhichhumanbeingsare

drivenhelplesslytowardoldageanddeath;inwhichtheyarespunaroundby

circumstancesso that they are oppressed by bodily pain,cast down by failure

and misfortune, made anxious and fearful by change and deterioration. It is a

world in which people aspire to live in harmony, but in which their untamed

emotionsrepeatedlycompelthem,againsttheirbetterjudgment,tolockhornsin

conflicts that escalate into violence and wholesale devastation. Finally, taking

the broadest view of all, it is a world in which sentient beings are propelled

forward, by their own ignorance and craving, from one life to the next,

wanderingblindlythroughthecycleofrebirthscalledsaṃsāra.

ChapterIIgivesanaccountoftheBuddha’sdescentintothisworld.Hecomes

asthe“oneperson”whoappearsoutofcompassionfortheworld,whosearising

in the world is “the manifestation of great light.” We follow the story of his

conception and birth, of his renunciation and quest for enlightenment, of his

realizationoftheDhamma,andofhisdecisiontoteach.Thechapterendswith

his first discourse to the five monks, his first disciples, in the Deer Parknear

Bārāṇasī.

ChapterIIIisintendedtosketchthespecialfeaturesoftheBuddha’steaching,

and by implication, the attitude with which a prospective student should

approach the teaching. The texts tell us that the Dhamma is not a secret or

esotericteachingbutonewhich“shineswhentaughtopenly.”Itdoesnotdemand

blindfaithinauthoritarianscriptures,indivinerevelations,orinfallibledogmas,

but invites investigation and appeals to personal experience as the ultimate

criterionfordeterminingitsvalidity.Theteachingisconcernedwiththearising

andcessationof suffering,whichcanbe observedinone’s ownexperience.It

doesnotsetupeventheBuddhaasanunimpeachableauthoritybutinvitesusto

examinehimtodeterminewhetherhe fully deservesourtrustandconfidence.

Finally,itoffersastep-by-stepprocedurewherebywecanputtheteachingtothe

test,andbydoingsorealizetheultimatetruthforourselves.

WithchapterIV,wecometotextsdealingwiththefirstofthethreetypesof

benefitthe Buddha’s teaching is intended to bring. Thisis called “the welfare

and happiness visible in this present life” (diṭṭhadhamma-hitasukha ), the

happinessthatcomesfromfollowingethicalnormsinone’sfamilyrelationships,

livelihood,andcommunalactivities.AlthoughEarlyBuddhismisoftendepicted

as a radical discipline of renunciation directed to a transcendental goal, the

NikāyasrevealtheBuddhatohavebeenacompassionateandpragmaticteacher

whowasintentonpromoting a socialorderinwhich peoplecanlivetogether

peacefullyandharmoniouslyinaccordancewithethicalguidelines.Thisaspect

ofEarlyBuddhismisevidentintheBuddha’steachingsonthedutiesofchildren

to their parents, on the mutual obligations of husbands and wives, on right

livelihood,onthedutiesoftherulertowardhissubjects,andontheprinciplesof

communalharmonyandrespect.

ThesecondtypeofbenefittowhichtheBuddha’steachingleadsisthesubject

of chapter V, called the welfare and happiness pertaining to the future life

(samparāyika-hitasukha). This is the happiness achieved by obtaining a

fortunaterebirthandsuccessinfuturelivesthroughone’saccumulationofmerit.

Theterm“merit”(puñña)referstowholesomekamma(Skt:karma)considered

intermsofitscapacitytoproducefavorableresultswithintheroundofrebirths.

I begin this chapter with a selection of texts on the teaching of kamma and

rebirth.Thisleadsustogeneraltextsontheideaofmerit,followedbyselections

onthethreeprincipal“basesof merit”recognizedintheBuddha’sdiscourses:

giving (dāna), moral discipline (sīla), and meditation (bhāvanā). Since

meditation figures prominently in the third type of benefit, the kind of

meditationemphasizedhere,asabasisformerit,isthatproductiveofthemost

abundantmundanefruits,thefour“divineabodes”(brahmavihāra),particularly

thedevelopmentofloving-kindness.

Chapter VI is transitional, intended to prepare the way for the chapters to

follow. While demonstrating that the practice of his teaching does indeed

conduceto happinessand goodfortune withinthe boundsof mundane life, in

ordertoleadpeoplebeyondthesebounds,theBuddhaexposesthedangerand

inadequacy in all conditioned existence. He shows the defects in sensual

pleasures,the shortcomingsof materialsuccess, theinevitability ofdeath, and

theimpermanenceofallconditionedrealmsofbeing.Toarouseinhisdisciples

an aspiration for the ultimate good, Nibbāna, the Buddha again and again

underscorestheperilsofsaṃsāra.Thusthischaptercomestoaclimaxwithtwo

dramatictextsthatdwellonthemiseryofbondagetotheroundofrepeatedbirth

anddeath.

ThefollowingfourchaptersaredevotedtothethirdbenefitthattheBuddha’s

teachingisintendedtobring:theultimategood(paramattha),theattainmentof

Nibbāna.Thefirstofthese,chapterVII,givesageneraloverviewofthepathto

liberation,whichistreatedanalyticallythroughdefinitionsofthefactorsofthe

NobleEightfoldPathanddynamicallythroughanaccountofthetrainingofthe

monk.Alongsuttaonthegraduatedpathsurveysthemonastictrainingfromthe

monk’s initial entry upon the life of renunciation to his attainment of

arahantship,thefinalgoal.

ChapterVIIIfocusesuponthetamingofthemind,themajoremphasisinthe

monastic training. I here present texts that discuss the obstacles to mental

development, the means of overcoming these obstacles, different methods of

meditation,andthestatestobeattainedwhentheobstaclesareovercomeandthe

disciplegainsmasteryoverthemind.InthischapterIintroducethedistinction

between samatha and vipassanā , serenity and insight, the one leading to

samādhi or concentration, the other to paññā or wisdom. However, I include

textsthattreatinsightonlyintermsofthemethodsusedtogenerateit,notin

termsofitsactualcontents.

ChapterIX,titled“ShiningtheLightofWisdom,”dealswiththecontentof

insight. For Early Buddhism, and indeed for almost all schools of Buddhism,

insightorwisdomistheprincipalinstrumentofliberation.ThusinthischapterI

focusontheBuddha’steachingsaboutsuchtopicspivotaltothedevelopmentof

wisdom as right view, the five aggregates, the six sense bases, the eighteen

elements,dependentorigination,andtheFourNobleTruths.Thischapterends

withaselectionoftextsonNibbāna,theultimategoalofwisdom.

The final goal is not achieved abruptly but by passing through a series of

stagesthattransformsanindividualfromaworldlingintoanarahant,aliberated

one.ThuschapterX,“ThePlanesofRealization,”offersaselectionoftextson

themainstagesalongtheway.Ifirstpresenttheseriesofstagesasaprogressive

sequence;thenIreturntothestartingpointandexaminethreemajormilestones

withinthisprogression:stream-entry,thestageofnonreturner,andarahantship.I

conclude with a selection of suttas on the Buddha, the foremost among the

arahants,herespokenofundertheepithetheusedmostoftenwhenreferringto

himself,theTathāgata.

THEORIGINSOFTHENIK̄YAS

The texts I have drawn upon to fill out my scheme are, as I said above, all

selectedfromtheNikāyas,themainsuttacollectionsofthePāliCanon.Some

wordsareneededtoexplaintheoriginandnatureofthesesources.

TheBuddhadidnotwritedownanyofhisteachings,norwerehisteachings

recordedinwritingbyhisdisciples.IndiancultureatthetimetheBuddhalived

wasstillpredominantlypreliterate.

TheBuddhawanderedfromtowntotownin

the Ganges plain, instructing his monks and nuns, giving sermons to the

householderswhoflockedtohearhimspeak,answeringthequestionsofcurious

inquirers,and engaging indiscussions with peoplefrom all classes of society.

Therecordsofhisteachingsthatwehavedonotcomefromhisownpenorfrom

transcriptions made by those who heard the teaching from him, but from

monasticcouncilsheldafterhisparinibb̄na—hispassingawayintoNibbāna—

forthepurposeofpreservinghisteaching.

Itisunlikelythattheteachingsthatderivefromthesecouncilsreproducethe

Buddha’s words verbatim. The Buddha must have spoken spontaneously and

elaborateduponhisthemesincountlesswaysinresponsetothevariedneedsof

thosewhosoughthisguidance.Preservingbyoraltransmissionsuchavastand

diverserangeofmaterialwouldhaveborderedontheimpossible.Tomoldthe

teachingsintoaformatsuitableforpreservation,themonksresponsibleforthe

texts would have had to collate and edit them to make them better fit for

listening, retention, recitation, memorization, and repetition—the five major

elements in oral transmission. This process, which may have already been

started during the Buddha’s lifetime, would have led to a fair degree of

simplificationandstandardizationofthematerialtobepreserved.

DuringtheBuddha’slife,thediscourseswereclassifiedintoninecategories

according to literary genre: sutta (prose discourses), geyya (mixed prose and

verse), veyyākaraṇa (answers to questions), gāthā (verse), udāna (inspired

utterances), itivuttaka (memorable sayings), jātaka (stories of past births),

abbhutadhamma(marvelousqualities),andvedalla(catechism).

Atsomepoint

after his passing, this older systemof classificationwas superceded by a new

scheme that ordered the texts into larger collections called Nikāyas in the

Theravāda Buddhist tradition, Āgamas in the North Indian Buddhist schools.

ExactlywhentheNikāya-Āgamaschemebecameascendantisnotknownwith

certainty,butonceitappeareditalmostcompletelyreplacedtheoldersystem.

TheCullavagga,oneofthebooksofthePāliVinayaPiṭaka,givesanaccount

of how the authorized texts were compiled at the first Buddhist council, held

three months after the Buddha’s parinibbāna.According to this report, shortly

after the Buddha’s death the Elder Mahākassapa, the de facto head of the

Saṅgha,selectedfivehundredmonks,allarahantsorliberatedones,tomeetand

compileanauthoritativeversionoftheteachings.Thecounciltookplaceduring

therainsretreatatRājagaha(modernRajgir),thecapitalofMagadha,thenthe

dominant state of Middle India.

 Mahākassapa first requested the Venerable

Upāli,theforemostspecialistondisciplinarymatters,to recitetheVinaya.On

thebasisofthisrecitation,theVinayaPiṭaka,theCompilationonDiscipline,was

compiled. Mahākassapa then asked the Venerable Ānanda to recite “the

Dhamma,”thatis,thediscourses,and onthebasisof thisrecitation,theSutta

Piṭaka,theCompilationofDiscourses,wascompiled.

TheCullavaggastatesthatwhenĀnandarecitedtheSuttaPiṭaka,theNikāyas

had the same contents as they do now, with the suttas arranged in the same

sequence as they now appear in the Pāli Canon. This narrative doubtlessly

records past history through the lens of a later period. The Āgamas of the

BuddhistschoolsotherthantheTheravādacorrespondtothefourmainNikāyas,

buttheyclassifysuttasdifferentlyandarrangetheircontentsinadifferentorder

fromthePāliNikāyas.ThissuggeststhatiftheNikāya-Āgamaarrangementdid

ariseatthefirstcouncil,thecouncilhadnotyetassignedsuttastotheirdefinitive

placeswithinthisscheme.Alternatively,itispossiblethatthisschemearoseata

latertime.Itcouldhavearisenatsomepointafterthefirstcouncilbutbeforethe

Saṅgha split into different schools. If it arose during the age of sectarian

divisions,itmighthavebeenintroducedbyoneschoolandthenbeenborrowed

byothers,sothatthedifferentschoolswouldassigntheirtextstodifferentplaces

withinthescheme.

While the Cullavagga’s account of the first council may include legendary

materialmixedwithhistoricalfact,thereseemsnoreasontodoubtĀnanda’srole

in the preservation of the discourses. As the Buddha’s personal attendant,

Ānandahadlearnedthediscoursesfromhimandtheothergreatdisciples,kept

them in mind, and taught them to others. During the Buddha’s life he was

praisedfor his retentivecapacities and was appointed “foremostof those who

havelearnedmuch”(etadaggaṃbahussutānaṃ).

 Few monks might have had

memoriesthatcouldequalĀnanda’s,butalreadyduringtheBuddha’slifetime

individualmonksmustalreadyhavebeguntospecializeinparticulartexts.The

standardization and simplification of the material would have facilitated

memorization.OncethetextsbecameclassifiedintotheNikāyasorĀgamas,the

challenges of preserving and transmitting the textual heritage were solved by

organizing the textual specialists into companies dedicated to specific

collections. Different companies within the Saṅgha could thus focus on

memorizingandinterpretingdifferentcollectionsandthecommunityasawhole

couldavoidplacingexcessivedemandsonthememoriesofindividualmonks.It

isinthiswaythattheteachingswouldcontinueto betransmittedforthenext

threeorfourhundredyears,untiltheywerefinallycommittedtowriting.

In the centuries following the Buddha’s death, the Saṅgha became divided

over disciplinary and doctrinal issues until by the third century after the

parinibbāna there were at least eighteen schools of Sectarian Buddhism. Each

sectprobablyhaditsowncollectionoftextsregardedmoreorlessascanonical,

though it is possible that several closely affiliated sects shared the same

collection of authorized texts. While the different Buddhist schools may have

organizedtheircollectionsdifferentlyandthoughtheirsuttasshowdifferencesof

detail, the individual suttas are often remarkably similar, sometimes almost

identical,andthedoctrinesandpracticestheydelineateareessentiallythesame.

The doctrinal differences between the schools did not arise from the suttas

themselves but from the interpretations the textual specialists imposed upon

them. Such differences hardened after the rival schools formalized their

philosophical principles in treatises and commentaries expressive of their

distinctive standpoints on doctrinal issues. So far as we can determine, the

refined philosophical systems had only minimal impact on the original texts

themselves, which the schools seemed disinclined to manipulate to suit their

doctrinalagendas.Instead,bymeansoftheircommentaries,theyendeavoredto

interpretthesuttasinsuchawayastodrawoutideasthatsupportedtheirown

views. It is not unusual for such interpretations to appear defensive and

contrived,apologeticagainstthewordsoftheoriginaltextsthemselves.

THEPĀLICANON

Sadly, the canonical collections belonging to most of the early mainstream

IndianBuddhistschoolswerelostwhenIndianBuddhismwasdevastatedbythe

MuslimsthatinvadednorthernIndiaintheeleventhandtwelfthcenturies.These

invasions effectively sounded the death knell for Buddhism in the land of its

birth.OnlyonecompletecollectionoftextsbelongingtooneoftheearlyIndian

Buddhistschoolsmanagedtosurviveintact.Thisisthecollectionpreservedin

the language that we know as Pāli. This collection belonged to the ancient

Theravādaschool,whichhadbeentransplantedtoSriLankainthethirdcentury

B.C.E.and thusmanaged toescape thehavoc wroughtupon Buddhismin the

motherland.Aboutthesametime,theTheravādaalsospreadtosoutheastAsia

andinlatercenturiesbecamedominantthroughouttheregion.

ThePāliCanonisthecollectionoftextstheTheravādaregardsasWordofthe

Buddha(buddhavacana).Thefactthatthetextsofthiscollectionhavesurvived

asasinglecanondoesnotmeanthattheycanallbedatedfromthesameperiod;

nordoesitmeanthatthetextsformingitsmostarchaicnucleusarenecessarily

moreancientthantheircounterpartsfromtheotherBuddhistschools,manyof

whichhavesurvivedinChineseorTibetantranslationaspartsofentirecanons

or,inafewcases,asisolatedtextsinanotherIndianlanguage.Nevertheless,the

Pāli Canon has a special importance for us, and that is so for at least three

reasons.

First,itisacompletecollectionallbelongingtoasingleschool.Eventhough

wecandetectclearsignsofhistoricaldevelopmentbetweendifferentportionsof

thecanon,thisalignmentwithasingleschoolgivesthetextsacertaindegreeof

uniformity.Amongthetextsstemmingfromthesameperiod,wecanevenspeak

of a homogeneity of contents, a single flavor underlying the manifold

expressions of the doctrine. This homogeneity is most evident in the four

NikāyasandtheolderpartsofthefifthNikāyaandgivesus reasontobelieve

thatwiththesetexts—allowingforthequalificationexpressedabove,thatthey

havecounterpartsinotherextinctBuddhistschools—wehavereachedthemost

ancientstratumofBuddhistliteraturediscoverable.

Second, the entire collection has been preserved in a Middle Indo-Aryan

language, one closely related to the language (or, more likely, the various

regionaldialects)thattheBuddhahimselfspoke.WecallthislanguagePāli,but

thenameforthelanguageactuallyarosethroughamisunderstanding.Theword

pāli properly means “text,” that is, the canonical text as distinct from the

commentaries. The commentators refer to the language in which the texts are

preservedaspālibhāsā,“thelanguageofthetexts.”Atsomepoint,thetermwas

misunderstoodtomean“thePālilanguage,”andoncethemisconceptionarose,it

took root and has been with us ever since. Scholars regard this language as a

hybridshowingfeaturesofseveralPrakritdialectsusedaroundthethirdcentury

B.C.E.,subjectedtoapartialprocessofSanskritization.

Whilethelanguageis

notidenticalwithanytheBuddhahimselfwouldhavespoken,itbelongstothe

samebroadlinguisticfamilyasthosehemighthaveusedandoriginatesfromthe

sameconceptualmatrix.Thislanguagethusreflectsthethought-worldthatthe

BuddhainheritedfromthewiderIndiancultureintowhichhewasborn,sothat

itswordscapturethesubtlenuancesofthatthought-worldwithouttheintrusion

ofalieninfluencesinevitableineventhebestandmostscrupuloustranslations.

ThiscontrastswithChinese,Tibetan,orEnglishtranslationsofthetexts,which

reverberatewiththeconnotationsofthewordschosenfromthetargetlanguages.

ThethirdreasonthePāliCanonhasspecialimportanceisthatthiscollection

is authoritative for a contemporary Buddhist school. Unlike the textual

collections of the extinct schools of Early Buddhism, which are purely of

academic interest, this collection still brims with life. It inspires the faith of

millionsofBuddhistsfromthevillagesandmonasteriesofSriLanka,Myanmar,

and Southeast Asia to the cities and meditation centers of Europe and the

Americas. It shapes their understanding, guides them in the face of difficult

ethicalchoices,informstheirmeditativepractices,andoffersthemthekeysto

liberatinginsight.

ThePāliCanoniscommonlyknownastheTipiṭaka,the“ThreeBaskets”or

“Three Compilations.” This threefold classification was not unique to the

TheravādaschoolbutwasincommonuseamongtheIndianBuddhistschoolsas

a way to categorize the Buddhist canonical texts. Even today the scriptures

preservedinChinesetranslationareknownastheChineseTripiṭaka.Thethree

compilationsofthePāliCanonare:

1. The Vinaya Piṭaka, the Compilation of Discipline, which contains the

rules laid down for the guidance of the monks and nuns and the

regulations prescribed for the harmonious functioning of the monastic

order.

2. The Sutta Piṭaka, the Compilation of Discourses, which contains the

suttas,thediscoursesoftheBuddhaandthoseofhischief disciplesas

wellasinspirationalworksinverse,versenarratives,andcertainworks

ofacommentarialnature.

3.TheAbhidhammaPiṭaka,theCompilationofPhilosophy,acollectionof

seven treatises which subject the Buddha’s teachings to rigorous

philosophicalsystematization.

The Abhidhamma Piṭaka is obviously the product of a later phase in the

evolution of Buddhist thought than the other two Piṭakas. The Pāli version

represents the Theravāda school’s attempt to systematize the older teachings.

Other early schools apparently had their own Abhidhamma systems. The

Sarvāstivādasystemistheonlyonewhosecanonicaltextshavesurvivedintact

intheir entirety. Itscanonical collection,like thePāli version,also consistsof

seventexts.ThesewereoriginallycomposedinSanskritbutarepreservedinfull

only in Chinese translation. The system they define differs significantly from

thatofitsTheravādacounterpartinbothformulationandphilosophy.

TheSuttaPiṭaka,whichcontainstherecordsoftheBuddha’sdiscoursesand

discussions, consists of five collections called Nikāyas. In the age of the

commentators they were also known as Āgamas, like their counterparts in

northernBuddhism.ThefourmajorNikāyasare:

1.TheDīghaNikāya:theCollectionofLongDiscourses,thirty-foursuttas

arrangedintothreevaggas,orbooks.

2.TheMajjhimaNikāya:theCollectionofMiddleLengthDiscourses,152

suttasarrangedintothreevaggas.

3.TheSaṃyuttaNikāya:theCollectionofConnectedDiscourses,closeto

three thousand short suttas grouped into fifty-six chapters, called

saṃyuttas,whichareinturncollectedintofivevaggas.

4. The Aṅguttara Nikāya: the Collection of Numerical Discourses (or,

perhaps, “Incremental Discourses”), approximately 2,400 short suttas

arrangedintoelevenchapters,callednipātas.

The Dīgha Nikāya and Majjhima Nikāya, at first glance, seem to be

establishedprincipallyonthebasisoflength:thelongerdiscoursesgointothe

Dīgha, the middle-length discourses into the Majjhima. Careful tabulations of

theircontents,however,suggestthatanotherfactormightunderliethedistinction

betweenthesetwocollections.ThesuttasoftheDīghaNikāyaarelargelyaimed

at a popular audience and seem intended to attract potential converts to the

teachingbydemonstratingthesuperiorityoftheBuddhaandhisdoctrine.The

suttasoftheMajjhimaNikāyaarelargelydirectedinwardtowardtheBuddhist

community and seem designed to acquaint newly ordained monks with the

doctrinesandpracticesofBuddhism.

Itremainsanopenquestionwhetherthese

pragmatic purposes are the determining criteria behind these two Nikāyas or

whethertheprimarycriterionislength,withthesepragmaticpurposesfollowing

asincidentalconsequencesoftheirrespectivedifferencesinlength.

TheSaṃyuttaNikāyaisorganizedbywayofsubjectmatter.Eachsubjectis

the“yoke”(saṃyoga) that connects the discourses into a saṃyutta or chapter.

Hencethetitleofthecollection,the“connected(saṃyutta)discourses.”Thefirst

book,theBookwithVerses,isuniqueinbeingcompiledonthebasisofliterary

genre.Itcontainssuttasinmixedproseandverse,arrangedinelevenchaptersby

wayofsubject.Theotherfourbookseachcontainlongchaptersdealingwiththe

principaldoctrinesofEarlyBuddhism.BooksII,III,andIVeachopenwitha

long chapter devoted to a theme of major importance, respectively, dependent

origination (chapter 12: Nidānasaṃyutta); the five aggregates (chapter 22:

Khandhasaṃyutta); and the six internal and external sense bases (chapter 35:

Saḷāyatanasaṃyutta).PartVdealswiththeprincipalgroupsoftrainingfactors

that, in the post-canonical period, come to be called the thirty-seven aids to

enlightenment (bodhipakkhiyā dhammā). These include the Noble Eightfold

Path(chapter45:Maggasaṃyutta),thesevenfactorsofenlightenment(chapter

46: Bojjhaṅgasaṃyutta ), and the four establishments of mindfulness (chapter

47:Satipaṭṭhānasaṃyutta).Fromitscontents,wemightinferthattheSaṃyutta

Nikāyawasintendedtoservetheneedsoftwogroupswithinthemonasticorder.

Oneconsistedofthedoctrinalspecialists,thosemonksandnunswhosoughtto

explore the deep implications of the Dhamma and to elucidate them for their

companions in the religious life. The other consisted of those devoted to the

meditativedevelopmentofinsight.

TheAṅguttara Nikāyais arrangedaccording to a numerical schemederived

from a peculiar feature of the Buddha’s pedagogic method. To facilitate easy

comprehensionandmemorization,the Buddhaoftenformulatedhis discourses

by way of numerical sets, a format that helped to ensure that the ideas he

conveyed would be easily retained in mind. TheAṅguttara Nikāya assembles

these numerical discourses into a single massive work of eleven nipātas or

chapters, each representing the number of terms upon which the constituent

suttashavebeenframed.ThusthereistheChapteroftheOnes(ekakanipāta),

the Chapter of the Twos (dukanipāta), the Chapter of the Threes (tikanipāta),

andsoforth,uptoandendingwiththeChapteroftheElevens(ekādasanipāta).

SincethevariousgroupsofpathfactorshavebeenincludedintheSaṃyutta,the

Aṅguttara can focus on those aspects of the training that have not been

incorporatedintherepetitivesets.TheAṅguttaraincludesanotableproportion

of suttas addressed to lay followers dealing with the ethical and spiritual

concernsoflifewithintheworld,includingfamilyrelationships(husbandsand

wives, children and parents) and the proper ways to acquire, save, and utilize

wealth. Other suttas deal with the practical training of monks. The numerical

arrangement of this collection makes it particularly convenient for formal

instruction, and thus it could easily be drawn upon by elder monks when

teachingtheirpupilsandbypreacherswhengivingsermonstothelaity.

BesidesthefourmajorNikāyas,thePāliSuttaPiṭakaincludesafifthNikāya,

calledtheKhuddakaNikāya.ThisnamemeanstheMinorCollection.Perhapsit

originally consisted merely of a number of minor works that could not be

includedinthefourmajorNikāyas.Butasmoreandmoreworkswerecomposed

over the centuries and added to it, its dimensions swelled until it became the

mostvoluminousofthefiveNikāyas.AttheheartoftheKhuddaka,however,is

asmallconstellationofshortworkscomposedeitherentirelyinverse(namely,

the Dhammapada, the Theragāthā, and the Therīgāthā) or in mixed prose and

verse(theSuttanipāta,theUdāna,andtheItivuttaka)whosestyleandcontents

suggestthattheyareofgreatantiquity.OthertextsoftheKhuddakaNikāya—

suchasthePaṭisambhidāmaggaandthetwoNiddesas—representthestandpoint

oftheTheravādaschoolandthusmusthavebeencomposedduringtheperiodof

Sectarian Buddhism, when the early schools had taken their separate paths of

doctrinaldevelopment.

ThefourNikāyasofthePāliCanonhavecounterpartsintheĀgamasofthe

ChineseTripiṭaka,thoughthesearefromdifferentearlyschools.Corresponding

to each respectively there is a Dirghāgama, probably stemming from the

Dharmaguptakaschool,originallytranslatedfromaPrakrit;aMadhyamāgama

andSamyuktāgama,bothstemmingfromtheSarvāstivādaschoolandtranslated

from Sanskrit; and an Ekottarāgama, corresponding to the Aṅguttara Nikāya,

generallythoughttohavebelongedtoabranchoftheMahāsāṅghikaschooland

tohavebeentranslatedfromadialectofMiddleIndo-Aryanoramixeddialect

of Prakrit with Sanskrit elements. The Chinese Tripiṭaka also contains

translations of individual sūtras from the four collections, perhaps from still

otherunidentifiedschools,andtranslationsofindividualbooksfromtheMinor

Collection, including two translations of a Dhammapada (one said to be very

closetothePāliversion)andpartsoftheSuttanipāta,which,asaunifiedwork,

doesnotexistinChinesetranslation.

ANOTEONSTYLE

ReadersofthePālisuttasareoftenannoyedbytherepetitivenessofthetexts.It

isdifficulttotellhowmuchofthisstemsfromtheBuddhahimself,whoasan

itinerant preacher must have used repetition to reinforce his points, and how

muchisduetothecompilers.Itisobvious,however,thatahighproportionof

therepetitivenessderivesfromtheprocessoforaltransmission.

ToavoidexcessiverepetitivenessinthetranslationIhavehadtomakeample

use of elisions. In this respect I follow the printed editions of the Pāli texts,

which are also highly abridged, but a translation intended for a contemporary

readerrequiresstillmorecompressionifitistoavoidriskingthereader’swrath.

Ontheotherhand,Ihavebeenkeentoseethatnothingessentialtotheoriginal

text, including the flavor, has been lost due to the abridgment. The ideals of

consideratenesstothereaderandfidelity to thetextsometimesmakecontrary

demandsonatranslator.

The treatment of repetition patterns in which the same utterance is made

regardingasetofitemsisaperpetualproblemintranslatingPālisuttas.When

translatingasuttaaboutthefiveaggregates,forexample,oneistemptedtoforgo

the enumeration of the individual aggregates and instead turn the sutta into a

generalstatementabouttheaggregatesasaclass.Tomymind,suchanapproach

risks turning translation into paraphrase and thereby losing too much of the

original.Mygeneralpolicyhasbeentotranslatethefullutteranceinrelationto

thefirstandlastmembersofthesetandmerelytoenumeratetheintermediate

membersseparatedbyellipsispoints.Thus,inasuttaaboutthefiveaggregates,I

render the statement in full only for form and consciousness, and in between

have“feeling…perception…volitionalformations…,”implyingtherebythat

thefullstatementlikewiseappliestothem.

Thisapproachhasrequiredthefrequentuseofellipsispoints,apracticethat

also invites criticism. When faced with repetitive passages in the narrative

framework,Ihavesometimescondensedthemratherthanuseellipsispointsto

showwheretextisbeingelided.However,withtextsofdoctrinalexpositionI

adheretothepracticedescribedintheprecedingparagraph.Ithinkthetranslator

has the responsibility, when translating passages of doctrinal significance, to

showexactlywheretextisbeingelided,andforthisellipsispointsremainthe

besttoolathand.

I.TheHumanCondition

INTRODUCTION

Likeotherreligiousteachings,theBuddha’steachingoriginatesasaresponseto

thestrainsattheheartofthehumancondition.Whatdistinguisheshisteaching

from other religious approaches to the human condition is the directness,

thoroughness,anduncompromisingrealismwithwhichhelooksatthesestrains.

The Buddha does not offer us palliatives that leave the underlying maladies

untouchedbeneaththesurface;rather,hetracesourexistentialillnessdowntoits

mostfundamentalcauses,sopersistentanddestructive,andshowsushowthese

canbetotallyuprooted.However,whiletheDhammawilleventuallyleadtothe

wisdomthateradicatesthecausesofsuffering,itdoesnotbegintherebutwith

observationsaboutthehardfactsofeverydayexperience.Heretooitsdirectness,

thoroughness, and tough realism are evident. The teaching begins by calling

upon us to develop a faculty called yoniso manasikāra, careful attention. The

Buddhaasks us to stop drifting thoughtlessly through ourlives and instead to

pay careful attention to simple truths that are everywhere available to us,

clamoringforthesustainedconsiderationtheydeserve.

One of the most obvious and inescapable of these truths is also among the

mostdifficultforustofullyacknowledge,namely,thatweareboundtogrow

old, fall ill, and die. It is commonly assumed that the Buddha beckons us to

recognizethereality ofoldage anddeath inorder to motivateus toenterthe

pathofrenunciationleadingtoNibbāna,completeliberationfromtheroundof

birthanddeath.However,whilethismaybehisultimateintention,itisnotthe

firstresponseheseeks to evokeinuswhen weturntohim for guidance.The

initialresponsetheBuddhaintendstoarouseinusisanethicalone.Bycalling

ourattentiontoourbondagetooldageanddeath,heseekstoinspireinusafirm

resolution to turn away from unwholesome ways of living and to embrace

insteadwholesomealternatives.

Again, the Buddha grounds his initial ethical appeal not only upon a

compassionatefeelingforotherbeings,butalsouponourinstinctiveconcernfor

ourownlong-termwelfareandhappiness.Hetriestomakeusseethattoactin

accordancewithethicalguidelineswillenableustosecureourownwell-being

both now and in the long-term future. His argument hinges on the important

premisethatactionshaveconsequences.Ifwearetoalterouraccustomedways,

wemust beconvinced ofthe validityof thisprinciple. Specifically, to change

from a self-stultifying way of life to one that is truly fruitful and inwardly

rewarding, we must realize that our actions have consequences for ourselves,

consequencesthatcanrebounduponusbothinthislifeandinsubsequentlives.

Thethreesuttasthatconstitutethefirstsectionofthischapterestablishthis

pointeloquently,eachinitsownway.TextI,1(1)enunciatestheinevitablelaw

thatallbeingswhohavetakenbirthmustundergoaginganddeath.Althoughat

firstglancethediscourseseemstobestatingamerefactofnature,bycitingas

examplesmembersoftheupperstrataofsociety(wealthyrulers,brahmins,and

householders)andliberatedarahants,itinsinuatesasubtlemoralmessageintoits

words.TextI,1(2)bringsout this message moreexplicitly with itsimpressive

simileofthemountain,whichdriveshomethepointthatwhen“aginganddeath

arerollingin”onus,ourtaskinlifeistoliverighteouslyanddowholesomeand

meritorious deeds. The sutta on the “divine messengers”—Text I,1(3)—

establishes the corollary to this: when we fail to recognize the “divine

messengers”inourmidst,whenwemissthehiddenwarningsignalsofoldage,

illness, and death, we become negligent and behave recklessly, creating

unwholesomekammawiththepotentialtoyielddreadfulconsequences.

The realization that we are bound to grow old and die breaks the spell of

infatuationcastoverusbysensualpleasures,wealth,andpower.Itdispelsthe

mistofconfusionandmotivatesustotakefreshstockofourpurposesinlife.We

may not be ready to give up family and possessions for a life of homeless

wanderingandsolitarymeditation,butthisisnotanoptiontheBuddhagenerally

expectsofhishouseholderdisciples.Rather,aswesawabove,thefirstlessonhe

draws from the fact that our lives end in old age and death is an ethical one

interwovenwiththetwinprinciplesofkammaandrebirth.Thelawofkamma

stipulates that our unwholesome and wholesome actions have consequences

extendingfar beyond this present life: unwholesome actions lead to rebirth in

statesofmiseryandbringfuturepainandsuffering;wholesomeactionsleadtoa

pleasant rebirth and bring future well-being and happiness. Since we have to

growoldanddie,weshouldbeconstantlyawarethatanypresentprosperitywe

mightenjoyismerelytemporary.Wecanenjoyitonlyaslongasweareyoung

and healthy; and when we die, our newly acquired kamma will gain the

opportunitytoripenandbringforthitsownresults.Wemustthenreapthedue

fruits of our deeds. With an eye to our long-term future welfare, we should

scrupulously avoid evil deeds that result in suffering and diligently engage in

wholesomedeedsthatgeneratehappinesshereandinfuturelives.

In the second section, we explore three aspects of human life that I have

collected under the heading “The Tribulations of Unreflective Living.” These

types of suffering differ from those connected with old age and death in an

importantrespect.Oldageanddeathareboundupwithbodilyexistenceandare

thus unavoidable, common to both ordinary people and liberated arahants—a

pointmadeinthefirsttextofthischapter.Incontrast,thethreetextsincludedin

thissectionalldistinguishbetweentheordinaryperson,called“theuninstructed

worldling”(assutavāputhujjana),andthewisefollower oftheBuddha, called

the“instructednobledisciple”(sutavāariyasāvaka).

The first of these distinctions, drawn in Text I,2(1), revolves around the

response to painful feelings. Both the worldling and the noble disciple

experiencepainfulbodilyfeelings,buttheyrespondtothesefeelingsdifferently.

Theworldlingreactstothemwithaversionandtherefore,ontopofthepainful

bodilyfeeling,alsoexperiencesapainfulmentalfeeling:sorrow,resentment,or

distress. The noble disciple, when afflicted with bodily pain, endures such

feeling patiently, without sorrow, resentment, or distress. It is commonly

assumedthatphysical andmental painareinseparably linked,but theBuddha

makes a clear demarcation between the two. He holds that while bodily

existenceisinevitablyboundupwithphysicalpain,suchpainneednottrigger

theemotionalreactionsofmisery,fear,resentment,anddistresswithwhichwe

habitually respond to it. Through mental training we can develop the

mindfulness and clear comprehension necessary to endure physical pain

courageously, with patience and equanimity. Through insight we can develop

sufficientwisdomtoovercomeourdreadofpainfulfeelingsandourneedtoseek

reliefindistractingbingesofsensualself-indulgence.

Anotheraspectofhumanlifethatbringstotheforethedifferencesbetween

theworldlingandthenoblediscipleisthechangingvicissitudesoffortune.The

Buddhisttextsneatlyreducethesetofourpairsofopposites,knownastheeight

worldly conditions (aṭṭha lokadhammā): gain and loss, fame and disrepute,

praiseandblame,pleasureandpain.TextI,2(2)showshowtheworldlingand

thenoblediscipledifferintheirresponsestothesechanges.Whiletheworldling

iselatedbysuccessinachievinggain,fame,praise,andpleasure,anddejected

when confronted with their undesired opposites, the noble disciple remains

unperturbed.Byapplyingtheunderstandingofimpermanencetobothfavorable

and unfavorable conditions, the noble disciple can abide in equanimity, not

attached to favorable conditions, not repelled by unfavorable ones. Such a

disciplegivesuplikesanddislikes,sorrowanddistress,andultimatelywinsthe

highestblessingofall:completefreedomfromsuffering.

TextI,2(3)examinestheplightoftheworldlingatastillmorefundamental

level. Because they misconceive things, worldlings are agitated by change,

especially when that change affectstheir own bodies and minds. The Buddha

classifiestheconstituentsofbodyandmindintofivecategoriesknownas“the

five aggregates subject to clinging” (pañc’upādānakkhandhā): form, feeling,

perception, volitional formations, and consciousness (for details, see pp. 305–

07). These five aggregates are the building blocks that we typically use to

constructoursenseofpersonalidentity;theyarethethingsthatweclingtoas

being“mine,”“I,”and“myself.”Whateverweidentifywith,whateverwetake

tobeaselforthepossessionsofaself,canallbeclassifiedamongthesefive

aggregates.Thefiveaggregatesarethustheultimategroundsof“identification”

and“appropriation,” the two basic activities by whichwe establish a sense of

selfhood.Sinceweinvestournotionsofselfhoodandpersonalidentitywithan

intenseemotionalconcern,whentheobjectstowhichtheyarefastened—thefive

aggregates—undergo change, we naturally experience anxiety and distress. In

ourperception,itisnotmereimpersonalphenomenathatareundergoingchange,

butourveryidentities,ourcherishedselves,andthisiswhatwefearmostofall.

However, as the present text shows, a noble disciple has clearly seen with

wisdom the delusive nature of all notions of permanent selfhood and thus no

longer identifies with the five aggregates. Therefore the noble disciple can

confronttheirchangewithoutanxiousconcern,unperturbedinthefaceoftheir

alteration,decay,anddestruction.

Agitationandturmoilafflicthumanlifenotonlyatthepersonalandprivate

level,butalsoinoursocialinteractions.Fromthemostancienttimes,ourworld

hasalwaysbeenoneofviolentconfrontationsandconflict.Thenames,places,

and instruments of destruction may change, but the forces behind them, the

motivations, the expressions of greed and hate, remain fairly constant. The

Nikāyas testify that the Buddha was intensely aware of this dimension of the

humancondition.Althoughhisteaching,withitsstressonethicalself-discipline

and mental self-cultivation, aims primarily at personal enlightenment and

liberation,theBuddhaalsosoughttoofferpeoplearefugefromtheviolenceand

injustice that rack human lives in such cruel ways. This is apparent in his

emphasis on loving-kindness and compassion; on harmlessness in action and

gentlenessinspeech;andonthepeacefulresolutionofdisputes.

The third section of this chapter includes four short texts dealing with the

underlyingroots ofviolent conflictand injustice.We cansee fromthese texts

thattheBuddhadoesnot clamorforchangesmerelyin the outerstructuresof

society.Hedemonstratesthatthesedarkphenomenaareexternalprojectionsof

theunwholesomeproclivitiesofthehumanmindandthuspointstotheneedfor

inner change as a parallel condition for establishing peace and social justice.

Eachofthefourtextsincludedinthissectiontracesconflict,violence,political

oppression, and economic injustice back to their causes; each in its own way

locatesthesecauseswithinthemind.

TextI,3(1)explainsconflictsbetweenlaypeopleasarisingfromattachmentto

sensual pleasures, conflicts between ascetics as arising from attachment to

views. Text I,3(2), a dialogue between the Buddha and Sakka, the pre-

Buddhistic Indian ruler of the devas, traces hatred and enmity to envy and

niggardliness; from there the Buddha traces them back to fundamental

distortions that affect the way our perception and cognition process the

information provided by the senses. Text I,3(3) offers another version of the

famous chain of causation, which proceeds from feeling to craving, and from

cravingviaotherconditionsto“thetakingupofclubsandweapons”andother

typesofviolentbehavior.TextI,3(4)depictshowthethreerootsofevil—greed,

hatred,anddelusion—haveterriblerepercussionsonawholesociety,issuingin

violence,thelustforpower,andtheunjustinflictionofsuffering.Allfourtexts

imply that any significant and lasting transformations of society require

significantchangesinthemoralfiberofindividualhumanbeings;foraslongas

greed, hatred, and delusion run rampant as determinants of conduct, the

consequencesareboundtobeconsistentlydetrimental.

The Buddha’s teaching addresses a fourth aspect of the human condition

which,unlikethethreewehavesofarexamined,isnotimmediatelyperceptible

tous.Thisisourbondagetotheroundofrebirths.Fromtheselectionoftexts

includedinthefinalsectioninthischapter,weseethattheBuddhateachesour

individuallifespantobemerelyasinglephasewithinaseriesofrebirthsthathas

been proceeding without any discernible beginning in time. This series of

rebirthsiscalledsaṃsāra,aPāliwordwhichsuggeststheideaofdirectionless

wandering. No matter how far back in time we may seek a beginning to the

universe,weneverfindaninitialmomentofcreation.Nomatterhowfarback

wemaytraceanygivenindividualsequenceoflives,wecanneverarriveata

first point. According to TextsI,4(1) and I,4(2), even if we were to trace the

sequenceofourmothersandfathersacrossworldsystems,wewouldonlycome

uponstillmoremothersandfathersstretchingbackintothefarhorizons.

Moreover,theprocessisnotonlybeginninglessbutisalsopotentiallyendless.

As long as ignorance and craving remain intact, the process will continue

indefinitely into the future with no end in sight. For the Buddha and Early

Buddhism, this is above all the defining crisis at the heart of the human

condition:weareboundtoachainofrebirths,andboundtoitbynothingother

than our own ignorance and craving. The pointless wandering on in saṃsāra

occurs against a cosmic background of inconceivably vast dimensions. The

period of time that it takes for a world system to evolve, reach its phase of

maximum expansion, contract, and then disintegrate is called a kappa (Skt:

kalpa),aneon.TextI,4(3)offers a vivid simile tosuggest the eon’s duration;

TextI,4(4),anothervividsimiletoillustratetheincalculablenumberoftheeons

throughwhichwehavewandered.

Asbeingswanderandroamfromlifetolife,shroudedindarkness,theyfall

againandagainintothechasmofbirth,aging,sickness,anddeath.Butbecause

their craving propels them forward in a relentless quest for gratification, they

seldompauselongenoughtostepbackandattendcarefullytotheirexistential

plight.AsTextI,4(5)states,theyinstead justkeep revolvingaround the “five

aggregates”inthewayadogonaleashmightrunaroundapostorpillar.Since

their ignorance prevents them from recognizing the vicious nature of their

condition, they cannot discern even the tracks of a path to deliverance. Most

beingsliveimmersedintheenjoymentofsensualpleasures.Others,drivenby

theneedforpower,status,andesteem,passtheirlivesinvainattemptstofillan

unquenchable thirst. Many, fearful of annihilation at death, construct belief

systemsthatascribetotheirindividualselves,theirsouls,theprospectofeternal

life.Afewyearnforapathtoliberationbutdonotknowwheretofindone.It

waspreciselytooffersuchapaththattheBuddhahasappearedinourmidst.

I.THEHUMANCONDITION

1.OLDAGE,ILLNESS,ANDDEATH

(1)AgingandDeath

AtSāvatthī,KingPasenadiofKosalasaidtotheBlessedOne:“Venerablesir,is

anyonewhoisbornfreefromaginganddeath?”

“Great king, no one who is born is free from aging and death. Even those

affluentkhattiyas—rich,withgreatwealthandproperty,withabundantgoldand

silver,abundanttreasuresandcommodities,abundantwealthandgrain—because

they have been born, are not free from aging and death. Even those affluent

brahmins…affluenthouseholders—rich…withabundantwealthandgrain—

because they have been born, are not free from aging and death. Even those

monkswho are arahants, whosetaints are destroyed, whohave lived the holy

life,donewhathadtobedone,laiddowntheburden,reachedtheirowngoal,

utterlydestroyedthefetters ofexistence,and arecompletelyliberatedthrough

finalknowledge:evenforthem this bodyissubjectto breaking up,subjectto

beinglaiddown.

“Thebeautifulchariotsofkingswearout,

Thisbodytooundergoesdecay.

ButtheDhammaofthegooddoesnotdecay:

Sothegoodproclaimalongwiththegood.”

(SN3:3;I71<163–64>)

(2)TheSimileoftheMountain

AtSāvatthī,inthemiddleoftheday,KingPasenadiofKosalaapproachedthe

BlessedOne,paidhomagetohim,andsatdowntooneside.TheBlessedOne

thenaskedhim:“Nowwhereareyoucomingfrom,greatking,inthemiddleof

theday?”

“Just now, venerable sir, I have been engaged in those affairs of kingship

typicalforkings,whoareintoxicatedwiththeintoxicationofsovereignty,who

areobsessedbygreedforsensualpleasures,whohaveattainedstablecontrolin

their country, and who rule having conquered a great sphere of territory on

earth.”

“Whatdoyouthink,greatking?Supposeamanwouldcometoyoufromthe

east,onewho istrustworthy andreliable,and wouldtell you:‘Forsure, great

king,youshouldknowthis:Iamcomingfromtheeast,andthereIsawagreat

mountain high as the clouds coming this way, crushing all living beings. Do

whateveryouthinkshouldbedone,greatking.’Thenasecondmanwouldcome

toyoufromthewest...athirdmanfromthenorth...andafourthmanfromthe

south,onewhoistrustworthyandreliable,andwouldtellyou:‘Forsure,great

king,youshouldknowthis:Iamcomingfromthesouth,andthereIsawagreat

mountain high as the clouds coming this way, crushing all living beings. Do

whateveryouthinkshouldbedone,greatking.’If,greatking,suchagreatperil

shouldarise,suchaterribledestructionofhumanlife,thehumanstatebeingso

difficulttoobtain,whatshouldbedone?”

“If,venerablesir,suchagreatperilshouldarise,suchaterribledestructionof

humanlife,thehumanstatebeingsodifficulttoobtain,whatelseshouldbedone

but to live by the Dhamma, to live righteously, and to do wholesome and

meritoriousdeeds?”

“Iinformyou,greatking,Iannouncetoyou,greatking:aginganddeathare

rollinginonyou.Whenaginganddeatharerollinginonyou,greatking,what

shouldbedone?”

“Asaginganddeatharerollinginonme,venerablesir,whatelseshouldbe

donebuttolivebytheDhamma,toliverighteously,andtodowholesomeand

meritoriousdeeds?

“Venerable sir, kings intoxicated with the intoxication of sovereignty,

obsessedbygreedforsensualpleasures,whohaveattainedstablecontrolintheir

countryandruleoveragreatsphereofterritory,conquerbymeansofelephant

battles,cavalrybattles,chariotbattles,andinfantrybattles;butthereisnohope

of victory by such battles, no chance of success, when aging and death are

rollingin.Inthisroyalcourt,venerablesir,therearecounselorswho,whenthe

enemiesarrive,arecapableofdividingthembysubterfuge;butthereisnohope

ofvictorybysubterfuge,nochanceofsuccess,whenaginganddeatharerolling

in.Inthisroyalcourt,venerablesir,thereexistsabundantbullionandgoldstored

in vaults and lofts, and with such wealth we are capable of mollifying the

enemieswhentheycome;butthereisnohopeofvictorybywealth,nochanceof

success,whenaginganddeatharerollingin.Asaginganddeatharerollingin

on me, venerable sir, what else should I do but live by the Dhamma, live

righteously,anddowholesomeandmeritoriousdeeds?”

“Soitis,greatking!Soitis,greatking!Asaginganddeatharerollinginon

you,whatelseshouldyoudobutlivebytheDhamma,liverighteously,anddo

wholesomeandmeritoriousdeeds?”

ThisiswhattheBlessedOnesaid.Havingsaidthis,theFortunateOne,the

Teacher,furthersaidthis:

“Justasmountainsofsolidrock,

Massive,reachingtothesky,

Mightdrawtogetherfromallsides,

Crushingallinthefourquarters—

Soaginganddeathcome

Rollingoverlivingbeings—



“Khattiyas,brahmins,vessas,suddas,

Outcastsandscavengers:

Theysparenonealongtheway

Butcomecrushingeverything.



“There’snohopethereforvictory

Byelephanttroops,chariots,andinfantry.

Onecan’tdefeatthembysubterfuge,

Orbuythemoffbymeansofwealth.



“Thereforeapersonofwisdomhere,

Outofregardforhisowngood,

Steadfast,shouldsettlefaith

IntheBuddha,Dhamma,andSaṅgha.



“WhenoneconductsoneselfbyDhamma

Withbody,speech,andmind,

Theypraiseonehereinthepresentlife,

Andafterdeathonerejoicesinheaven.”

(SN3:25;I100–102<224–29>)

(3)TheDivineMessengers

“Thereare,monks,threedivinemessengers.

Whatthree?

“There is a person of bad conduct in body, speech, and mind. On the

dissolutionofthebody,afterdeath,heisrebornintheplaneofmisery,inabad

destination,inalowerworld,inhell.Therethewardersofhellseizehimbyboth

armsand take him beforeYama,the Lord ofDeath,

saying:‘This man, your

majesty,hadnorespectforfatherandmother,norforasceticsandbrahmins,nor

didhehonortheeldersofthefamily.Mayyourmajestyinflictduepunishment

onhim!’

“Then,monks,KingYamaquestionsthatman,examineshim,andaddresses

himconcerningthefirstdivinemessenger:‘Didn’tyoueversee,mygoodman,

thefirstdivinemessengerappearingamonghumankind?’

“Andhereplies:‘No,Lord,Ididnotseehim.’

“Then King Yama says to him: ‘But, my good man, didn’t you ever see a

womanoraman,eighty,ninety,orahundredyearsold,frail,bentlikearoof

bracket,crooked,leaningonastick,shakilygoingalong,ailing,youthandvigor

gone, with broken teeth, with gray and scanty hair or bald, wrinkled, with

blotchedlimbs?’

“Andthemanreplies:‘Yes,Lord,Ihaveseenthis.’

“ThenKingYamasaystohim:‘Mygoodman,didn’titeveroccurtoyou,an

intelligentandmatureperson,“Itooamsubjecttooldageandcannotescapeit.

Letmenowdonobledeedsbybody,speech,andmind”?’

“‘No,Lord,Icouldnotdoit.Iwasnegligent.’

“ThenKingYamasays:‘Throughnegligence,mygoodman,youhavefailed

todonobledeedsbybody,speech,andmind.Well,youwillbetreatedasbefits

your negligence. That evil action of yours was not done by mother or father,

brothers, sisters, friends or companions, nor by relatives, devas, ascetics, or

brahmins. But you alone have done that evil deed, and you will have to

experiencethefruit.’

“When,monks,KingYamahasquestioned,examined,andaddressedhimthus

concerning the first divine messenger, he again questions, examines, and

addressesthemanaboutthesecondone,saying:‘Didn’tyoueversee,mygood

man,theseconddivinemessengerappearingamonghumankind?’

“‘No,Lord,Ididnotseehim.’

“‘But,mygoodman,didn’tyoueverseeawomanoramanwhowassickand

inpain,seriouslyill,lyinginhisownfilth,havingtobeliftedupbysomeand

puttobedbyothers?’

“‘Yes,Lord,Ihaveseenthis.’

“‘Mygoodman,didn’titeveroccurtoyou,anintelligentandmatureperson,

“Itooamsubjecttoillnessandcannotescapeit.Letmenowdonobledeedsby

body,speech,andmind”?’

“‘No,Lord,Icouldnotdoit.Iwasnegligent.’

“‘Throughnegligence,mygood man,youhave failedtodo nobledeedsby

body,speech,andmind.Well,youwillbetreatedasbefitsyournegligence.That

evilactionofyourswasnotdonebymotherorfather,brothers,sisters,friendsor

companions,norbyrelatives,devas,ascetics,orbrahmins.Butyoualonehave

donethatevildeed,andyouwillhavetoexperiencethefruit.’

“When,monks,KingYamahasquestioned,examined,andaddressedhimthus

concerning the second divine messenger, he again questions, examines, and

addressesthemanaboutthe thirdone,saying:‘Didn’tyoueversee,mygood

man,thethirddivinemessengerappearingamonghumankind?’

“‘No,Lord,Ididnotseehim.’

“‘But,mygoodman,didn’tyoueverseeawomanoramanone,two,orthree

daysdead,thecorpseswollen,discolored,andfestering?’

“‘Yes,Lord,Ihaveseenthis.’

“‘Then,mygoodman,didn’titeveroccurtoyou,anintelligentandmature

person,“Itooamsubjecttodeathandcannotescapeit.Letmenowdonoble

deedsbybody,speech,andmind”?’

“‘No,Lord,Icouldnotdoit.Iwasnegligent.’

“‘Throughnegligence,mygood man,youhave failedtodo nobledeedsby

body,speech,andmind.Well,youwillbetreatedasbefitsyournegligence.That

evilactionofyourswasnotdonebymotherorfather,brothers,sisters,friendsor

companions,norbyrelatives,devas,ascetics,orbrahmins.Butyoualonehave

donethatevildeed,andyouwillhavetoexperiencethefruit.’”

(fromAN3:35;I138–40)

2.THETRIBULATIONSOFUNREFLECTIVELIVING

(1)TheDartofPainfulFeeling

“Monks, when the uninstructed worldling experiences a painful feeling, he

sorrows, grieves, and laments; he weeps beating his breast and becomes

distraught.Hefeelstwofeelings—abodilyoneandamentalone.Supposethey

weretostrikeamanwithadart,andthenstrikehimimmediatelyafterwardwith

aseconddart,sothatthemanwouldfeelafeelingcausedbytwodarts.Sotoo,

when the uninstructed worldling experiences a painful feeling, he feels two

feelings—abodilyoneandamentalone.

“Whileexperiencingthatsamepainfulfeeling,heharborsaversiontowardit.

When he harbors aversion toward painful feeling, the underlying tendency to

aversion toward painful feeling lies behind this.

 While experiencing painful

feeling, he seeks delight in sensual pleasure. For what reason? Because the

uninstructedworldlingdoesnotknowofanyescapefrompainfulfeelingother

thansensualpleasure.

Whenheseeksdelightinsensualpleasure,theunderlying

tendencytolustforpleasantfeelingliesbehindthis.Hedoesnotunderstandasit

reallyistheoriginandthepassingaway,thegratification,thedanger,andthe

escapeinthecaseofthesefeelings.

Whenhedoesnotunderstandthesethings,

the underlying tendency to ignorance in regard to neither-painful-nor-pleasant

feelingliesbehindthis.

“Ifhefeelsapleasantfeeling,hefeelsitattached.Ifhefeelsapainfulfeeling,

hefeelsitattached.Ifhefeelsaneither-painful-nor-pleasantfeeling,hefeelsit

attached. This, monks, is called an uninstructed worldling who is attached to

birth,aging,anddeath;whoisattachedtosorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,

anddespair;whoisattachedtosuffering,Isay.

“Monks,whentheinstructednoblediscipleexperiencesapainfulfeeling,he

does not sorrow, grieve, or lament; he does not weep beating his breast and

become distraught.

 He feels one feeling—a bodily one, not a mental one.

Supposethey wereto strike a man witha dart,but they would not strikehim

immediatelyafterwardwithaseconddart,sothatthemanwouldfeelafeeling

causedbyonedartonly.Sotoo,whentheinstructednoblediscipleexperiencesa

painfulfeeling,hefeelsonefeeling—abodilyone,andnotamentalone.

“Whileexperiencingthatsamepainfulfeeling,heharborsnoaversiontoward

it.Sinceheharborsnoaversiontowardpainfulfeeling,theunderlyingtendency

toaversiontowardpainfulfeelingdoesnotliebehindthis.Whileexperiencing

painfulfeeling,hedoesnotseekdelightinsensualpleasure.Forwhatreason?

Becausetheinstructednoblediscipleknowsofanescapefrompainfulfeeling

otherthansensualpleasure.Sincehedoesnotseekdelightinsensualpleasure,

theunderlyingtendencytolustforpleasantfeelingdoesnotliebehindthis.He

understandsasitreallyistheoriginandthepassingaway,thegratification,the

danger,andtheescapeinthecaseofthesefeelings.Sinceheunderstandsthese

things, the underlying tendency to ignorance in regard to neither-painful-nor-

pleasantfeelingdoesnotliebehindthis.

“Ifhefeelsapleasantfeeling,hefeelsitdetached.Ifhefeelsapainfulfeeling,

hefeelsitdetached.Ifhefeelsaneither-painful-nor-pleasantfeeling,hefeelsit

detached. This, monks, is called a noble disciple who is detached from birth,

aging,anddeath;whoisdetachedfromsorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,and

despair;whoisdetachedfromsuffering,Isay.

“This, monks, is the distinction, the disparity, the difference between the

instructednoblediscipleandtheuninstructedworldling.”

(SN36:6;IV207–10)

(2)TheVicissitudesofLife

“Theseeightworldlyconditions,monks,keeptheworldturningaround,andthe

worldturnsaroundtheseeightworldlyconditions.Whateight?Gainandloss,

fameanddisrepute,praiseandblame,pleasureandpain.

“Theseeightworldlyconditions,monks,areencounteredbyanuninstructed

worldling,andtheyarealsoencounteredbyaninstructednobledisciple.What

nowisthedistinction,thedisparity,thedifferencebetweenaninstructednoble

discipleandanuninstructedworldling?”

“Venerablesir,ourknowledgeofthesethingshasitsrootsintheBlessedOne;

ithastheBlessedOneasguideandresort.Itwouldbegood,venerablesir,ifthe

BlessedOnewouldclarifythemeaningofthatstatement.Havinghearditfrom

him,themonkswillbearitinmind.”

“Listenthen,monks,andattendcarefully.Ishallspeak.”

“Yes,venerablesir,”themonksreplied.TheBlessedOnethenspokethus:

“When an uninstructed worldling, monks, comes upon gain, he does not

reflectonitthus:‘Thisgainthathascometomeisimpermanent,boundupwith

suffering,subjecttochange.’Hedoesnotknowitasitreallyis.Andwhenhe

comesuponloss,fameanddisrepute,praiseandblame,hedoesnotreflecton

them thus: ‘All these are impermanent, bound up with suffering, subject to

change.’Hedoesnotknowthemastheyreallyare.Withsuchaperson,gainand

loss, fame and disrepute, praise and blame, pleasure and pain keep his mind

engrossed. When gain comes he is elated and when he meets with loss he is

dejected.Whenfamecomesheiselatedandwhenhemeetswithdisreputeheis

dejected.Whenpraisecomesheiselatedandwhenhemeetswithblameheis

dejected.When he experiences pleasure he is elated and when he experiences

painheisdejected.Beingthusinvolvedinlikesanddislikes,hewillnotbefreed

from birth, aging, and death, from sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and

despair;hewillnotbefreedfromsuffering,Isay.

“But,monks,whenaninstructednobledisciplecomesupongain,hereflects

on it thus: ‘This gain that has come to me is impermanent, bound up with

suffering,subjecttochange.’Andsohewillreflectwhenlossandsoforthcome

upon him. He understands all these things as they really are, and they do not

engrosshismind.Thushewillnotbeelatedbygainanddejectedbyloss;elated

by fame and dejected by disrepute; elated by praise and dejected by blame;

elatedbypleasureanddejectedbypain.Havingthusgivenuplikesanddislikes,

he will be freed from birth, aging, and death, from sorrow, lamentation, pain,

dejection,anddespair;hewillbefreedfromsuffering,Isay.

“This, monks, is the distinction, the disparity, the difference between an

instructednoblediscipleandanuninstructedworldling.”

(AN8:6;IV157–59)

(3)AnxietyDuetoChange

“Monks,Iwill teach youagitationthrough clingingandnon-agitationthrough

nonclinging.

Listenandattendcarefully.Ishallspeak.”

“Yes,venerablesir,”thosemonksreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:

“And how, monks, is there agitation through clinging? Here, monks, the

uninstructedworldling,whoisnotaseerofthenobleonesandisunskilledand

undisciplined in their Dhamma, who is not a seer of superior persons and is

unskilled and undisciplined in their Dhamma, regards form as self, or self as

possessingform,orformasinself,orselfasinform.

Thatformofhischanges

andalters.Withthechangeandalterationofform,hisconsciousnessbecomes

preoccupied with the change of form. Agitation and a constellation of mental

statesbornofpreoccupationwiththechangeofformremainobsessinghismind.

Because his mind is obsessed, he is frightened, distressed, and anxious, and

throughclinginghebecomesagitated.

“Heregardsfeelingasself...perceptionasself...volitionalformationsasself

...consciousnessasself,orselfaspossessingconsciousness,orconsciousnessas

inself,orselfasinconsciousness.Thatconsciousnessofhischangesandalters.

With the change and alteration of consciousness, his consciousness becomes

preoccupiedwiththechangeofconsciousness.Agitationandaconstellationof

mental states born of preoccupation with the change of consciousness remain

obsessinghismind.Becausehismindisobsessed,heisfrightened,distressed,

andanxious,andthroughclinginghebecomesagitated.

“Itisinsuchaway,monks,thatthereisagitationthroughclinging.

“Andhow,monks,istherenon-agitationthroughnonclinging?Here,monks,

theinstructednobledisciple,whoisaseerofthenobleonesandisskilledand

disciplinedintheirDhamma,whoisaseerofsuperiorpersonsandisskilledand

disciplinedintheirDhamma,doesnotregardformasself,orselfaspossessing

form,orformasinself,orselfasinform.

Thatformofhischangesandalters.

Despitethechangeandalterationof form, hisconsciousnessdoesnot become

preoccupiedwiththechangeofform.Noagitationandconstellationofmental

statesbornofpreoccupationwiththechangeofformremainobsessinghismind.

Becausehis mindis notobsessed, heis not frightened, distressed,or anxious,

andthroughnonclinginghedoesnotbecomeagitated.

“He does not regard feeling as self ... perception as self ... volitional

formationsasself...consciousnessasself,orselfaspossessingconsciousness,

orconsciousnessasinself,orselfasinconsciousness.Thatconsciousnessofhis

changes and alters. Despite the change and alteration of consciousness, his

consciousnessdoesnotbecomepreoccupiedwiththechangeofconsciousness.

Noagitationandconstellationofmentalstates born ofpreoccupationwiththe

change of consciousness remain obsessing his mind. Because his mind is not

obsessed,heisnotfrightened,distressed,oranxious,andthroughnonclinginghe

doesnotbecomeagitated.

“Itisinsuchaway,monks,thatthereisnon-agitationthroughnonclinging.”

(SN22:7;III15–18)

3.AWORLDINTURMOIL

(1)TheOriginofConflict

ThebrahminĀrāmadaṇḍaapproachedtheVenerableMahākaccāna,

exchanged

friendly greetings with him, and asked him: “Why is it, Master Kaccāna, that

khattiyasfightwith khattiyas,brahmins withbrahmins,and householderswith

householders?”

“It is, brahmin, because of attachment to sensual pleasures, adherence to

sensualpleasures,fixationonsensualpleasures,addictiontosensualpleasures,

obsession with sensual pleasures, holding firmly to sensual pleasures that

khattiyasfightwith khattiyas,brahmins withbrahmins,and householderswith

householders.”

“Whyisit,MasterKaccāna,thatasceticsfightwithascetics?”

“Itis,brahmin,becauseofattachmenttoviews,adherencetoviews,fixation

onviews,addictiontoviews,obsessionwithviews,holdingfirmlytoviewsthat

asceticsfightwithascetics.”

(AN2:iv,6,abridged;I66)

(2)WhyDoBeingsLiveinHate?

2.1. Sakka, ruler of the devas,

 asked the Blessed One: “Beings wish to live

withouthate,harming,hostility,orenmity;theywishtoliveinpeace.Yetthey

liveinhate,harmingoneanother,hostile,andasenemies.Bywhatfettersare

theybound,sir,thattheyliveinsuchaway?”

[The Blessed One said:] “Ruler of the devas, it is the bonds of envy and

niggardlinessthatbindbeingssothat,althoughtheywishtolivewithouthate,

hostility, or enmity, and to live in peace, yet they live in hate, harming one

another,hostile,andasenemies.”

ThiswastheBlessedOne’sreply,andSakka,delighted,exclaimed:“Soitis,

BlessedOne!Soitis,FortunateOne!ThroughtheBlessedOne’sanswerIhave

overcome my doubt and gotten rid of uncertainty.” 2.2. Then Sakka, having

expressedhisappreciation,askedanotherquestion:“But,sir,whatgivesriseto

envy and niggardliness, what is their origin, how are they born, how do they

arise?Whenwhatispresentdotheyarise,andwhenwhatisabsentdotheynot

arise?”

“Envyandniggardliness,rulerofthedevas,arisefromlikinganddisliking;

this is their origin, this is how they are born, how they arise. When these are

present,theyarise,whentheseareabsent,theydonotarise.”

“But,sir,whatgivesrisetolikinganddisliking…?”—“Theyarise,rulerofthe

devas,fromdesire.…”—“Andwhatgivesrisetodesire…?”—“Itarises,rulerof

thedevas,fromthinking.Whenthemindthinksaboutsomething,desirearises;

whenthemindthinksofnothing,desiredoesnotarise.”

“But,sir,whatgivesrisetothinking…?”

“Thinking, ruler of the devas, arises from elaborated perceptions and

notions.

Whenelaboratedperceptionsandnotionsarepresent,thinkingarises.

Whenelaboratedperceptionsandnotionsareabsent,thinkingdoesnotarise.”

(fromDN21:SakkapañhaSutta;II276–77)

(3)TheDarkChainofCausation

9.“Thus,Ānanda,independenceuponfeelingthereiscraving;independence

upon craving there is pursuit; in dependence upon pursuit there is gain; in

dependenceupongainthereisdecision-making;independenceupondecision-

making there is desire and lust; in dependence upon desire and lust there is

attachment; in dependence upon attachment there is possessiveness; in

dependence upon possessiveness there is niggardliness; in dependence upon

niggardlinessthereisdefensiveness;andbecauseofdefensiveness,variousevil

unwholesomethingsoriginate—the takingup ofclubs andweapons, conflicts,

quarrels,anddisputes,insults,slander,andfalsehood.”

(fromDN15:MahānidānaSutta;II58)

(4)TheRootsofViolenceandOppression

“Greed,hatred,anddelusionofeverykindareunwholesome.

Whateveraction

agreedy,hating,anddeludedpersonheapsup—bydeeds,words,orthoughts—

that too is unwholesome. Whatever suffering such a person, overpowered by

greed,hatred,anddelusion,histhoughtscontrolledbythem,inflictsunderfalse

pretextsuponanother—bykilling,imprisonment,confiscationofproperty,false

accusations,orexpulsion—beingpromptedinthisbythethought,‘Ihavepower

andIwantpower,’allthisisunwholesometoo.”

(fromAN3:69;I201–2)

4.WITHOUTDISCOVERABLEBEGINNING

(1)GrassandSticks

The Blessed One said this: “Monks, this saṃsāra is without discoverable

beginning.

Afirstpointisnotdiscernedofbeingsroamingandwanderingon

hinderedbyignoranceandfetteredbycraving.Suppose,monks,amanwould

cutupwhatevergrass,sticks,branches,andfoliagethereareinthisJambudīpa

andcollectthemtogetherintoasingleheap.Havingdoneso,hewouldputthem

down,sayingforeachone:‘Thisismymother,thismymother’smother.’The

sequenceofthatman’smothersandgrandmotherswouldnotcometoanend,yet

thegrass,sticks,branches,andfoliageinthisJambudīpawouldbeusedupand

exhausted. For what reason? Because, monks, this saṃsāra is without

discoverable beginning. A first point is not discerned of beings roaming and

wandering on hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving. For such a long

time,monks,youhaveexperiencedsuffering,anguish,anddisaster,andswelled

thecemetery.Itisenoughtobecomedisenchantedwithallformations,enoughto

becomedispassionatetowardthem,enoughtobeliberatedfromthem.”

(SN15:1;II178)

(2)BallsofClay

“Monks, this saṃsāra is without discoverable beginning. A first point is not

discerned of beings roaming and wandering on hindered by ignorance and

fettered by craving. Suppose, monks, a man would reduce this great earth to

ballsofclaythesizeofjujubekernelsandputthemdown,saying[foreachone]:

‘Thisismyfather,thismyfather’sfather.’Thesequenceofthatman’sfathers

andgrandfatherswouldnotcometoanend,yetthisgreatearthwouldbeusedup

and exhausted. For what reason? Because, monks, this saṃsāra is without

discoverable beginning. A first point is not discerned of beings roaming and

wandering on hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving. For such a long

time,monks,youhaveexperiencedsuffering,anguish,anddisaster,andswelled

thecemetery.Itisenoughtobecomedisenchantedwithallformations,enoughto

becomedispassionatetowardthem,enoughtobeliberatedfromthem.”

(SN15:2;II179)

(3)TheMountain

AcertainmonkapproachedtheBlessedOne,paidhomagetohim,satdownto

oneside,andsaidtohim:“Venerablesir,howlongisaneon?”

“Aneonislong,monk.Itisnoteasytocountitandsayitissomanyyears,or

somanyhundredsofyears,orsomanythousandsofyears,orsomanyhundreds

ofthousandsofyears.”

“Thenisitpossibletogiveasimile,venerablesir?”

“It is possible, monk,” the Blessed One said. “Suppose, monk, there was a

greatstonemountainayojanalong,ayojanawide,andayojanahigh,without

holesorcrevices,onesolidmassofrock.

Attheendofeveryhundredyearsa

manwouldstrokeitoncewithapieceoffinecloth.Thatgreatstonemountain

might by this effort be worn away and eliminated but the eon would still not

havecometoanend.Solongisaneon,monk.Andofeonsofsuchlength,we

have wandered through so many eons, so many hundreds of eons, so many

thousands of eons, so many hundreds of thousands of eons. For what reason?

Because,monk,thissaṃsāraiswithoutdiscoverablebeginning….Itisenough

tobeliberatedfromthem.”

(SN15:5;II181–82)

(4)TheRiverGanges

At Rājagaha, in the Bamboo Grove, the Squirrel Sanctuary,a certain brahmin

approachedtheBlessedOneandexchangedgreetingswithhim.Whentheyhad

concluded their greetings and cordial talk, he sat down to one side and asked

him:“MasterGotama,howmanyeonshaveelapsedandgoneby?”

“Brahmin,manyeonshaveelapsedandgoneby.Itisnoteasytocountthem

and say they are so many eons, or so many hundreds of eons, or so many

thousandsofeons,orsomanyhundredsofthousandsofeons.”

“Butisitpossibletogiveasimile,MasterGotama?”

“Itispossible,brahmin,”theBlessedOnesaid.“Imagine,brahmin,thegrains

ofsandbetweenthepointwheretheriverGangesoriginatesandthepointwhere

itentersthegreatocean:itisnoteasytocounttheseandsaytherearesomany

grainsofsand,orsomanyhundredsofgrains,orsomanythousandsofgrains,

orsomanyhundredsofthousandsofgrains.Brahmin,theeonsthathaveelapsed

andgonebyareevenmorenumerousthanthat.Itisnoteasytocountthemand

say that they are so many eons, or so many hundreds of eons, or so many

thousandsofeons,orsomanyhundredsofthousandsofeons.Forwhatreason?

Because, brahmin, this saṃsāra is without discoverable beginning…. It is

enoughtobeliberatedfromthem.”

(SN15:8;II183–84)

(5)DogonaLeash

“Monks, this saṃsāra is without discoverable beginning. A first point is not

discerned of beings roaming and wandering on hindered by ignorance and

fetteredbycraving.

“Therecomesatime,monks,whenthegreatoceandriesupandevaporates

andnolongerexists,butstill,Isay,thereisnomakinganendofsufferingfor

thosebeingsroamingandwanderingonhinderedbyignoranceandfetteredby

craving.

“Therecomesatime,monks,whenSineru,thekingofmountains,burnsup

andperishesandnolongerexists,butstill,Isay,thereisnomakinganendof

sufferingforthosebeingsroamingandwanderingonhinderedbyignoranceand

fetteredbycraving.

“Therecomesatime,monks,whenthegreatearthburnsupandperishesand

nolongerexists,butstill,Isay,thereisnomakinganendofsufferingforthose

beings roaming and wandering on hindered by ignorance and fettered by

craving.

“Suppose, monks, a dog tied up on a leash was bound to a strong post or

pillar: it would just keep on running and revolving around that same post or

pillar.Sotoo,theuninstructedworldlingregardsformasself...feelingasself...

perceptionasself...volitionalformationsasself…consciousnessasself….He

just keeps running and revolving around form, around feeling, around

perception,aroundvolitionalformations,aroundconsciousness.Ashekeepson

runningandrevolvingaroundthem,heisnotfreedfromform,notfreedfrom

feeling, not freed from perception, not freed from volitional formations, not

freedfromconsciousness.Heisnotfreedfrombirth,aging,anddeath;notfreed

fromsorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair;notfreedfromsuffering,

Isay.”

(SN22:99;II149–50)

II.TheBringerofLight

INTRODUCTION

ThepictureofthehumanconditionthatemergesfromtheNikāyas,assketched

intheprecedingchapter,isthebackgroundagainstwhichthemanifestationof

the Buddha in the world acquires a heightened and deepened significance.

Unless we view the Buddha against this multi-dimensional background,

extendingfromthemostpersonalandindividualexigenciesofthepresenttothe

vast, impersonal rhythms of cosmic time, any interpretation we may arrive at

abouthisroleisboundtobeincomplete.Farfromcapturingtheviewpointofthe

compilersoftheNikāyas,ourinterpretationwillbeinfluencedasmuchbyour

own presuppositions as by theirs, perhaps even more so. Depending on our

biases and predispositions, we may choose to regard the Buddha as a liberal

ethicalreformerofadegenerateBrahmanism,asagreatsecularhumanist,asa

radicalempiricist,asanexistentialpsychologist,astheproponentofasweeping

agnosticism,orastheprecursorofanyotherintellectualfashionthatmeetsour

fancy. The Buddha who stares back at us from the texts will be too much a

reflectionofourselves,toolittleanimageoftheEnlightenedOne.

Perhaps in interpreting a body of ancient religious literature we can never

fully avoid inserting ourselves and our own values into the subject we are

interpreting. However, though we maynever achieve perfect transparency, we

canlimittheimpactofpersonalbiasupontheprocessofinterpretationbygiving

the words of the texts due respect. When we pay this act of homage to the

Nikāyas, when we take seriously their own account of the background to the

Buddha’smanifestationintheworld,wewillseethattheyascribetohismission

nothingshortofacosmicscope.Againstthebackgroundofauniversewithno

conceivableboundsintime,auniversewithinwhichlivingbeingsenvelopedin

the darkness of ignorance wander along bound to the suffering of old age,

sickness, and death, the Buddha arrives as the “torchbearer of humankind”

(ukkādhāromanussānaṃ) bringing the light of wisdom.

In thewords of Text

II,1,hisarisingintheworldis“themanifestationofgreatvision,ofgreatlight,

ofgreatradiance.”Havingdiscoveredforhimselftheperfectpeaceofliberation,

hekindlesforusthelightofknowledge,whichrevealsboththetruthsthatwe

mustseeforourselvesandthepathofpracticethatculminatesinthisliberating

vision.

AccordingtoBuddhisttradition,theBuddhaGotamaisnotmerelyoneunique

individual who puts in an unprecedented appearance on the stage of human

historyandthenbowsoutforever.Heis,rather,thefulfillmentofaprimordial

archetype, the most recent member of a cosmic “dynasty” of Buddhas

constitutedbynumberlessPerfectlyEnlightenedOnesofthepastandsustained

by Perfectly Enlightened Ones continuing indefinitely onward into the future.

Early Buddhism, even in the archaic root texts of the Nikāyas, already

recognizesapluralityofBuddhaswhoallconformtocertainfixedpatternsof

behavior,thebroadoutlinesofwhicharedescribedintheopeningsectionsofthe

MahāpadānaSutta(DīghaNikāya14,notrepresentedinthepresentanthology).

Theword“Tathāgata,”whichthetextsuseasanepithetforaBuddha,pointsto

thisfulfillmentofaprimordialarchetype.Thewordmeansboth“theonewho

hascomethus”(tath̄̄gata),thatis,whohascomeintoourmidstinthesameway

thattheBuddhasofthepasthavecome;and“theonewhohasgonethus”(tath̄

gata),thatis,whohasgonetotheultimatepeace,Nibbāna,inthesamewaythat

theBuddhasofthepasthavegone.

Though the Nikāyas stipulate that in any given world system, at any given

time,onlyonePerfectlyEnlightenedBuddhacanarise,thearisingofBuddhasis

intrinsictothecosmicprocess.Likeameteoragainsttheblacknessofthenight

sky,fromtimetotimeaBuddhawillappearagainstthebackdropofboundless

spaceand time,lighting upthe spiritualfirmament of the world,shedding the

brilliance of his wisdom upon those capable of seeing the truths that he

illuminates. The being who is to become a Buddha is called, in Pāli, a

bodhisatta,awordbetterknownintheSanskritform,bodhisattva.Accordingto

commonBuddhisttradition,abodhisattaisonewhoundertakesalongcourseof

spiritual development consciously motivated by the aspiration to attain future

Buddhahood.

 Inspired and sustained by great compassion for living beings

miredinthesufferingofbirthanddeath,abodhisattafulfills,overmanyeonsof

cosmic time, the difficult course needed to fully master the requisites for

supreme enlightenment. When all these requisites are complete, he attains

BuddhahoodinordertoestablishtheDhammaintheworld.ABuddhadiscovers

thelong-lostpathtoliberation,the“ancientpath”traveledbytheBuddhasofthe

pastthatculminatesintheboundlessfreedomofNibbāna.Havingfoundthepath

andtraveledittoitsend,hethenteachesitinallitsfullnesstohumanitysothat

manyotherscanenterthewaytofinalliberation.

This, however, does not exhaust the function of a Buddha. A Buddha

understands and teaches not only the path leading to the supreme state of

ultimateliberation,theperfectblissofNibbāna,butalsothepathsleadingtothe

varioustypesofwholesomemundanehappinesstowhichhumanbeingsaspire.

ABuddhaproclaimsbothapathofmundaneenhancementthatenablessentient

beingstoplantwholesomerootsproductiveofhappiness,peace,andsecurityin

theworldlydimensionsoftheirlives,andapathofworld-transcendencetoguide

sentientbeingstoNibbāna.Hisroleisthusmuchwiderthananexclusivefocus

on the transcendent aspects of his teaching might suggest. He is not merely a

mentor of ascetics and contemplatives, not merely a teacher of meditation

techniques and philosophical insights, but a guide to the Dhamma in its full

rangeanddepth:onewhoreveals,proclaims,andestablishesalltheprinciples

integraltocorrectunderstandingandwholesomeconduct,whethermundaneor

transcendental.TextII,1 highlightsthis wide-rangingaltruistic dimensionof a

Buddha’scareerwhenitpraisestheBuddhaastheonepersonwhoarisesinthe

world“forthewelfareofthemultitude,forthehappinessofthemultitude,outof

compassion for the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and

humans.”

The Nikāyas offer two perspectives on the Buddha as a person, and to do

justice to the texts it is important to hold these two perspectives in balance,

withoutlettingonecancelouttheother.AcorrectviewoftheBuddhacanonly

arisefromthemergingofthesetwoperspectives,justasthecorrectviewofan

object can arise only when the perspectives presented by our two eyes are

merged in the brain into a single image. One perspective, the one highlighted

most often in modernist presentations of Buddhism, shows the Buddha as a

humanbeingwho, like otherhumanbeings, hadtostruggle withthecommon

frailtiesofhumannaturetoarriveatthestateofanEnlightenedOne.Afterhis

enlightenmentattheageofthirty-five,hewalkedamongusforforty-fiveyears

asawiseandcompassionatehumanteacher,sharinghisrealizationwithothers

andensuringthathisteachingswouldremainintheworldlongafterhisdeath.

This is the side of the Buddha’s nature that figures most prominently in the

Nikāyas. Since it corresponds closely with contemporary agnostic attitudes

towardtheidealsofreligiousfaith,ithasanimmediateappealtothosenurtured

bymodernmodesofthought.

TheotheraspectoftheBuddha’spersonislikelytoseemstrangetous,butit

loomslargeinBuddhisttraditionandservesasthebedrockforpopularBuddhist

devotion. Though secondary in the Nikāyas, it occasionally surfaces so

conspicuously that it cannot be ignored, despite the efforts of Buddhist

moderniststo downplayits significanceor rationalizeits intrusions.From this

perspective,theBuddhaisseenasonewhohadalreadymadepreparationsfor

hissupremeattainmentovercountlesspastlivesandwasdestinedfrombirthto

fulfillthemissionofaworldteacher.TextII,2isanexampleofhowtheBuddha

isviewedfromthisperspective.Here,itissaid,thefutureBuddhadescendsfully

consciousfromtheTusitaheavenintohismother’swomb;hisconceptionand

birthareaccompaniedbywonders;deitiesworshipthenewborninfant;andas

soon as he is born he walks seven steps and announces his future destiny.

Obviously, for the compilers of such a sutta as this, the Buddha was already

destinedtoattainBuddhahoodevenpriortohisconceptionandthushisstruggle

forenlightenmentwasabattlewhoseoutcomewasalreadypredetermined.The

final paragraph of the sutta, however, ironically hearkens back to the realistic

pictureoftheBuddha.WhattheBuddhahimselfconsiderstobetrulywondrous

arenotthemiraclesaccompanyinghisconceptionandbirth,buthismindfulness

andclearcomprehensioninthemidstoffeelings,thoughts,andperceptions.

The three texts in section 3 are biographical accounts consistent with this

naturalistic point of view. They offer us a portrait of the Buddha stark in its

realism, bare in its naturalism, striking in its ability to convey deep

psychological insights with minimal descriptive technique. In Text II,3(1) we

readabouthisrenunciation,histrainingundertwofamousmeditationteachers,

hisdisillusionmentwiththeirteachings,hissolitarystruggle,andhistriumphant

realizationoftheDeathless.TextII,3(2)fillsinthegapsoftheabovenarrative

with a detailed account of the bodhisatta’s practice of self-mortification,

strangelymissingfromthepreviousdiscourse.Thistextalsogivesustheclassic

descriptionof theenlightenment experienceas involvingthe attainmentof the

four jhānas, states of deep meditation, followed by the three vijjās or higher

types of knowledge: the knowledge of the recollection of past lives, the

knowledgeofthepassingawayandrebirthofbeings,andtheknowledgeofthe

destructionofthetaints.Whilethistextmayconveytheimpressionthatthelast

knowledge broke upon the Buddha’s mind as a sudden and spontaneous

intuition,TextII,3(3)correctsthisimpressionwithanaccountoftheBodhisatta

ontheeveofhisenlightenmentreflectingdeeplyuponthesufferingofoldage

anddeath.Hethenmethodicallytracesthissufferingbacktoitsconditionsbya

process that involves, at each step, “careful attention” (yoniso manasikāra)

leadingto“abreakthroughbywisdom”(paññāyaabhisamaya).Thisprocessof

investigation culminates in the discovery of dependent origination, which

therebybecomesthephilosophicalcornerstoneofhisteaching.

It is important to emphasize that, as presented here and elsewhere in the

Nikāyas(seebelow,pp.353-59),dependentoriginationdoesnotsignifyajoyous

celebrationofthe interconnectednessof all thingsbut aprecise articulationof

theconditionalpatternindependenceuponwhichsufferingarisesandceases.In

thesametext,theBuddhadeclaresthathediscoveredthepathtoenlightenment

onlywhenhefoundthewaytobringdependentoriginationtoanend.Itwasthus

the realization of the cessation of dependent origination, and not merely the

discoveryofitsoriginationaspect,thatprecipitatedtheBuddha’senlightenment.

The simile of the ancient city, introduced later in the discourse, illustrates the

point that the Buddha’s enlightenment was not a unique event but the

rediscoveryofthesame“ancientpath”thathadbeenfollowedbytheBuddhasof

thepast.

Text II,4 resumes the narrative of Text II,3(1), which I had divided by

splicinginthetwoalternativeversionsofthebodhisatta’squestforthepathto

enlightenment.WenowrejointheBuddhaimmediatelyafterhisenlightenment

asheponderstheweightyquestionwhethertoattempttosharehisrealization

withtheworld.Justatthispoint,inthemidstofatextthathassofarappearedso

convincinglynaturalistic,adeitynamedBrahmāSahampatidescendsfromthe

heavenstopleadwiththeBuddhatowanderforthandteachtheDhammaforthe

benefitofthose“withlittledustintheireyes.”Shouldthisscenebeinterpreted

literally or as a symbolic enactment of an internal drama taking place in the

Buddha’smind?Itishardtogiveadefinitiveanswertothisquestion;perhaps

thescenecouldbeunderstoodasoccurringatbothlevelsatonce.Inanyevent,

Brahmā’sappearanceatthispointmarksashiftfromtherealismthatcolorsthe

earlierpartofthesuttabacktowardthemythical-symbolicmode.Thetransition

againunderscoresthecosmicsignificanceoftheBuddha’senlightenmentandhis

futuremissionasateacher.

Brahmā’s appeal eventually prevails and the Buddha agrees to teach. He

choosesasthefirstrecipientsofhisteachingthefiveasceticswhohadattended

onhimduringhisyearsofasceticpractices.Thenarrativeculminatesinabrief

statementthattheBuddhainstructedtheminsuchawaythattheyallattainedthe

deathlessNibbānaforthemselves.However,itgivesnoindicationofthespecific

teaching that the Buddha imparted to them when he first met them after his

enlightenment.ThatteachingistheFirstDiscourseitself,knownas“TheSetting

inMotionoftheWheeloftheDhamma.”

This sutta is included here as TextII,5. When the sutta opens, the Buddha

announcestothefiveasceticsthathehasdiscovered“themiddleway,”whichhe

identifies with the Noble Eightfold Path. In the light of the preceding

biographical account, we can understand why the Buddha should begin his

discourseinthisway.Thefiveasceticshadinitiallyrefusedtoacknowledgethe

Buddha’sclaimtoenlightenmentandspurnedhimasonewhohadbetrayedthe

highercallingtoreverttoalifeofluxury.Thushefirsthadtoassurethemthat,

farfromrevertingtoalifeofself-indulgence,hehaddiscoveredanewapproach

to the timeless quest for enlightenment. This new approach, he told them,

remainsfaithfultotherenunciationofsensualpleasuresyeteschewstormenting

thebodyaspointlessandunproductive.Hethenexplainedtothemthetruepath

to liberation, the Noble Eightfold Path, which avoids the two extremes and

therebygivesrisetothelightofwisdomandculminatesinthedestructionofall

bondage,Nibbāna.

Oncehehascleareduptheirmisunderstanding,theBuddhathenproclaimsthe

truths he had realized on the night of his enlightenment. These are the Four

Noble Truths. Not only does he enunciate each truth and briefly define its

meaning,buthedescribeseachtruthfromthreeperspectives.Theseconstitute

the three “turnings of the wheel of the Dhamma” referred to later in the

discourse. With respect to each truth, the first turning is the wisdom that

illuminatesthe particular nature of that noble truth. The second turning is the

understandingthateachnobletruthimposesaparticulartasktobeaccomplished.

Thusthe first nobletruth, thetruth ofsuffering,is to be fully understood; the

secondtruth,thetruthofsuffering’soriginorcraving,istobeabandoned; the

thirdtruth,thetruthofthecessationofsuffering,istoberealized;andthefourth

truth, the truth of the path, is to be developed. The third turning is the

understandingthatthefourfunctionsregardingtheFourNobleTruthshavebeen

completed: the truth of sufferinghas been fully understood; craving has been

abandoned;thecessationofsufferinghasbeenrealized;andthepathhasbeen

fullydeveloped.ItwasonlywhenheunderstoodtheFourNobleTruthsinthese

three turnings and twelve modes, he says, that he could claim that he had

attainedunsurpassedperfectenlightenment.

TheDhammacakkappavattanaSuttaillustratesonceagaintheblendingofthe

twostylisticmodesIreferredtoearlier.Thediscourseproceedsalmostentirely

intherealistic-naturalisticmodeuntilweapproachthe end.WhentheBuddha

completeshissermon,thecosmicsignificanceoftheeventisilluminatedbya

passageshowinghowthedeitiesineachsuccessivecelestialrealmapplaudthe

discourseandshoutthegoodnewsuptothedeitiesinthenexthigherrealm.At

the same time, the entire world system quakes and shakes, and a great light

surpassingtheradianceofthegodsappearsintheworld.Then,attheveryend,

wereturnfromthisgloriousscenebacktotheprosaichumanrealm,tobehold

theBuddha briefly congratulating the asceticKoṇḍañña for gaining “the dust-

free, stainless vision of the Dhamma.” In one split-second, the Lamp of the

Doctrine has passed from master to disciple, to begin its journey throughout

Indiaandacrosstheworld.

II.THEBRINGEROFLIGHT

1.ONEPERSON

“Monks, there is one person who arises in the world for the welfare of the

multitude,forthehappinessofthemultitude,outofcompassionfortheworld,

for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and humans. Who is that one

person?ItistheTathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne.Thisis

thatoneperson.

“Monks, there is one person arising in the world who is unique, without a

peer, withoutcounterpart, incomparable,unequalled, matchless,unrivalled, the

best of humans.Who is that one person? It is the Tathāgata, theArahant, the

PerfectlyEnlightenedOne.Thisisthatoneperson.

“Monks,themanifestationofonepersonisthemanifestationofgreatvision,

of great light, of great radiance; it is the manifestation of the six things

unsurpassed;therealizationofthefouranalyticalknowledges;thepenetrationof

thevariouselements,ofthediversityofelements;itistherealizationofthefruit

ofknowledgeandliberation;therealizationofthefruitsofstream-entry,once-

returning, nonreturning, and arahantship.

 Who is that one person? It is the

Tathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne.Thisisthatoneperson.”

(AN1:xiii,1,5,6;I22–23)

2.THEBUDDHA’SCONCEPTIONANDBIRTH

1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatSāvatthīin

Jeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’sPark.

2.Nowanumberofmonksweresittingintheassemblyhall,wheretheyhad

met together on returning from their almsround, after their meal, when this

discussion arose among them: “It is wonderful, friends, it is marvelous, how

mightyandpowerfulistheTathāgata!ForheisabletoknowabouttheBuddhas

ofthepast—whoattainedfinalNibbāna,cut[thetangleof]proliferation,broke

thecycle,endedtheround,andsurmountedallsuffering—thatforthoseBlessed

Ones their birth was thus, their names were thus, their clans were thus, their

moral discipline was thus, their qualities [of concentration] were thus, their

wisdom was thus, their meditative dwellings were thus, their liberation was

thus.”

When this was said, the Venerable Ānanda told the monks: “Friends,

Tathāgatas are wonderful and have wonderful qualities. Tathāgatas are

marvelousandhavemarvelousqualities.”

However, their discussion was interrupted; for the Blessed One rose from

meditationwhenitwasevening,wenttotheassemblyhall,andsatdownona

seat made ready. Then he addressed the monks thus: “Monks, for what

discussionareyousittingtogetherherenow?Andwhatwasyourdiscussionthat

wasinterrupted?”

“Here,venerablesir,weweresittingintheassemblyhall,wherewehadmet

togetheronreturningfromouralmsround,afterourmeal,whenthisdiscussion

aroseamongus:‘Itiswonderful,friends,itismarvelous…theirliberationwas

thus.’ When this was said, venerable sir, the Venerable Ānanda said to us:

‘Friends,Tathāgatasarewonderfulandhavewonderfulqualities.Tathāgatasare

marvelousandhavemarvelousqualities.’Thiswasourdiscussion,venerablesir,

thatwasinterruptedwhentheBlessedOnearrived.”

Then the Blessed One addressed the Venerable Ānanda: “That being so,

Ānanda,explainmorefullytheTathāgata’swonderfulandmarvelousqualities.”

3.“Iheardandlearnedthis,venerablesir,fromtheBlessedOne’sownlips:

‘Mindful and clearly comprehending, Ānanda, the Bodhisatta appeared in the

Tusita heaven.’

 That mindful and clearly comprehending the Bodhisatta

appearedintheTusitaheaven—thisIrememberasawonderfulandmarvelous

qualityoftheBlessedOne.

4.“IheardandlearnedthisfromtheBlessedOne’sownlips:‘Mindfuland

clearlycomprehendingtheBodhisattaremainedintheTusitaheaven.’ThistooI

rememberasawonderfulandmarvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.

5.“IheardandlearnedthisfromtheBlessedOne’sownlips:‘Forthewhole

of his lifespan the Bodhisatta remained in the Tusita heaven.’ This too I

rememberasawonderfulandmarvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.

6.“IheardandlearnedthisfromtheBlessedOne’sownlips:‘Mindfuland

clearlycomprehendingtheBodhisattapassedawayfromtheTusitaheavenand

descended into his mother’s womb.’ This too I remember as a wonderful and

marvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.

7. “I heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: ‘When the

BodhisattapassedawayfromtheTusitaheavenanddescendedintohismother’s

womb, an immeasurable great radiance surpassing the divine majesty of the

devasappearedintheworldwithitsdevas,Māra,andBrahmā,inthispopulation

withitsasceticsandbrahmins,withitsdevasandhumanbeings.Andevenin

thoseabysmalworldintervalsofvacancy,gloom,andutterdarkness,wherethe

moon and the sun, mighty and powerful as they are, cannot make their light

prevail,theretooanimmeasurablegreatradiancesurpassingthedivinemajesty

ofthedevasappeared.

Andthebeingsrebornthereperceivedeachotherbythat

light: “So indeed, there are also other beings reborn here.” And this ten-

thousand-fold world system shook, quaked, and trembled, and again an

immeasurablegreatradiancesurpassingthedivinemajestyofthedevasappeared

intheworld.’ThistooIrememberasawonderfulandmarvelousqualityofthe

BlessedOne.

8. “I heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: ‘When the

Bodhisattahad descended into his mother’s womb, four young devas came to

guardhimatthefourquarterssothatnohumansornonhumansoranyoneatall

couldharmtheBodhisattaorhismother.’

ThistooIrememberasawonderful

andmarvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.

9. “I heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: ‘When the

Bodhisatta had descended into his mother’s womb, she became intrinsically

virtuous, refraining from killing living beings, from taking what is not given,

from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from wines, liquors, and

intoxicants, the basis of negligence.’ This too I remember as a wonderful and

marvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.…

14.“IheardandlearnedthisfromtheBlessedOne’sownlips:‘Otherwomen

givebirthaftercarryingthechildinthewombfornineortenmonths,butnotso

the Bodhisatta’s mother. The Bodhisatta’s mother gave birth to him after

carrying him in her womb for exactly ten months.’ This too I remember as a

wonderfulandmarvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.

15.“IheardandlearnedthisfromtheBlessedOne’sownlips:‘Otherwomen

give birth seated or lying down, but not so the Bodhisatta’s mother. The

Bodhisatta’smother gave birth to himstanding up.’This too I rememberas a

wonderfulandmarvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.

16. “I heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: ‘When the

Bodhisattacameforthfromhismother’swomb,firstdevasreceivedhim,then

humanbeings.’ThistooIrememberasawonderfulandmarvelousqualityofthe

BlessedOne.

17. “I heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: ‘When the

Bodhisattacameforthfromhismother’swomb,hedidnottouchtheearth.The

fouryoungdevasreceivedhimandsethimbeforehismothersaying:“Rejoice,

Oqueen,asonofgreatpowerhasbeenborntoyou.”’ThistooIrememberasa

wonderfulandmarvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.

18. “I heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: ‘When the

Bodhisatta came forth from his mother’s womb, he came forth unsullied,

unsmeared by water, humors, blood, or any kind of impurity, clean and

unsullied.Supposetherewereagemplacedonfinecloth,thenthegemwould

notsmeartheclothorthecloththegem.Whyisthat?Becauseofthepurityof

both. So too when the Bodhisatta came forth … he came forth clean and

unsullied.’ This too I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the

BlessedOne.

19. “I heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: ‘When the

Bodhisattacameforthfromhismother’s womb, twojetsofwaterappearedto

pourfromthesky,onecoolandonewarm,forbathingtheBodhisattaandhis

mother.’ This too I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the

BlessedOne.

20.“IheardandlearnedthisfromtheBlessedOne’sownlips:‘Assoonasthe

Bodhisattawasborn,hestoodfirmlywithhisfeetontheground;thenhetook

sevenstepsfacingnorth,andwithawhiteparasolheldoverhim,hesurveyed

eachquarterandutteredthewordsoftheleaderoftheherd:“Iamthehighestin

theworld;Iamthebestintheworld;Iamtheforemostintheworld.Thisismy

lastbirth;nowthereisnorenewedexistenceforme.”’

ThistooIrememberasa

wonderfulandmarvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.

21. “I heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: ‘When the

Bodhisattacameforthfromhismother’swomb,animmeasurablegreatradiance

surpassingthedivinemajestyofthedevasappearedintheworldwithitsdevas,

Māra, and Brahmā, in this population with its ascetics and brahmins, with its

devasandhumanbeings.Andeveninthoseabysmalworldintervalsofvacancy,

gloom,andutterdarkness,wherethemoonandthesun,mightyandpowerfulas

they are, cannot make their light prevail—there too an immeasurable great

radiancesurpassingthedivinemajestyofthedevasappearedintheworld.And

thebeingsrebornthereperceivedeachotherbythatlight:“Soindeed,thereare

alsootherbeingsrebornhere.”Andthisten-thousand-foldworldsystemshook,

quaked,andtrembled,andtheretooanimmeasurablegreatradiancesurpassing

thedivinemajestyofthedevasappearedintheworld.’ThatwhentheBodhisatta

cameforthfromhismother’swomb,animmeasurablegreatradiancesurpassing

thedivinemajestyofthedevasappearedintheworld...thistooIrememberasa

wonderfulandmarvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.”

22.“Thatbeingso,Ānanda,rememberthistooasawonderfulandmarvelous

qualityoftheTathāgata:Here,Ānanda,fortheTathāgatafeelingsareknownas

theyarise,astheyarepresent,astheydisappear;perceptionsareknownasthey

arise,astheyarepresent,astheydisappear;thoughtsareknownastheyarise,as

theyarepresent,astheydisappear.

Rememberthistoo,Ānanda,asawonderful

andmarvelousqualityoftheTathāgata.”

23.“Venerablesir,sincefortheBlessedOnefeelingsareknownastheyarise,

astheyarepresent,as theydisappear;perceptionsareknown as theyarise,as

theyarepresent,astheydisappear;thoughtsareknownastheyarise,astheyare

present,astheydisappear—thistooIrememberasawonderfulandmarvelous

qualityoftheBlessedOne.”

ThatiswhattheVenerableĀnandasaid.TheTeacherapproved.Themonks

weresatisfiedanddelightedintheVenerableĀnanda’swords.

(MN123:Acchariya-abbhūtaSutta,abridged;III118–20;122–24)

3.THEQUESTFORENLIGHTENMENT

(1)SeekingtheSupremeStateofSublimePeace

5.“Monks,therearethesetwokindsofsearch:thenoblesearchandtheignoble

search.Andwhatistheignoblesearch?Heresomeonebeinghimselfsubjectto

birthseekswhatisalsosubjecttobirth;beinghimselfsubjecttoaging,heseeks

whatisalsosubjecttoaging;beinghimselfsubjecttosickness,heseekswhatis

also subject to sickness; being himself subject to death, he seeks what is also

subjecttodeath;beinghimselfsubjecttosorrow,heseekswhatisalsosubjectto

sorrow; being himself subject to defilement, he seeks what is also subject to

defilement.

6–11. “And what may be said to be subject to birth, aging, sickness, and

death; to sorrow and defilement? Wife and children, men and women slaves,

goats and sheep, fowl and pigs, elephants, cattle, horses, and mares, gold and

silver: these acquisitions are subject to birth, aging, sickness, and death; to

sorrowanddefilement;andonewhoistiedtothesethings,infatuatedwiththem,

and utterly absorbed in them, being himself subject to birth ... to sorrow and

defilement,seekswhatitalsosubjecttobirth...tosorrowanddefilement.

12. “And what is the noble search? Here someone being himself subjectto

birth,havingunderstoodthedangerinwhatissubjecttobirth,seekstheunborn

supremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna;beinghimselfsubjecttoaging,having

understoodthedangerinwhatissubjecttoaging,heseekstheunagingsupreme

security from bondage, Nibbāna; being himself subject to sickness, having

understood the danger in what is subject to sickness, he seeks the unailing

supremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna;beinghimselfsubjecttodeath,having

understoodthedangerinwhatissubjecttodeath,heseeksthedeathlesssupreme

security from bondage, Nibbāna; being himself subject to sorrow, having

understood the danger in what is subject to sorrow, he seeks the sorrowless

supremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna;beinghimselfsubject to defilement,

having understood the danger in what is subject to defilement, he seeks the

undefiledsupremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna.Thisisthenoblesearch.

13.“Monks,beforemyenlightenment,whileIwasstillonlyanunenlightened

bodhisatta,Itoo,beingmyselfsubjecttobirth,soughtwhatwasalsosubjectto

birth;beingmyselfsubjecttoaging,sickness,death,sorrow,anddefilement,I

soughtwhatwasalsosubjecttoaging,sickness,death,sorrow,anddefilement.

ThenIconsideredthus:‘Why,beingmyselfsubjecttobirth,doIseekwhatis

also subject to birth? Why, being myself subject to aging, sickness, death,

sorrow,anddefilement,doIseekwhatisalsosubjecttoaging,sickness,death,

sorrow, and defilement? Suppose that, being myself subject to birth, having

understood the danger in what is subject to birth, I seek the unborn supreme

security from bondage, Nibbāna. Suppose that, being myself subject to aging,

sickness,death,sorrow,anddefilement,havingunderstoodthedangerinwhatis

subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defilement, I seek the unaging,

unailing, deathless, sorrowless, and undefiled supreme security from bondage,

Nibbāna.’

14. “Later, while still young, a black-haired young man endowed with the

blessing of youth, in the prime of life, though my mother and father wished

otherwiseandweptwithtearfulfaces,Ishavedoffmyhairandbeard,putonthe

ochrerobe,andwentforthfromthehomelifeintohomelessness.

15.“Havinggoneforth,monks,insearchofwhatiswholesome,seekingthe

supremestateofsublimepeace,IwenttoĀḷāraKālāmaandsaidtohim:‘Friend

Kālāma,IwanttoleadthespirituallifeinthisDhammaandDiscipline.’Āḷāra

Kālāmareplied:‘Thevenerableonemaystayhere.ThisDhammaissuchthata

wise man can soon enter upon and dwell in it, realizing for himself through

direct knowledge his own teacher’s doctrine.’ I soon quickly learned that

Dhamma.Asfarasmerelip-recitingandrehearsalofhisteachingwent,Icould

speak with knowledge and assurance, and I claimed, ‘I know and see’—and

therewereotherswhodidlikewise.

“Iconsidered:‘ItisnotthroughmerefaithalonethatĀḷāraKālāmadeclares:

“Byrealizingitformyselfwithdirectknowledge,Ienteruponanddwellinthis

Dhamma.”CertainlyĀḷāraKālāmadwellsknowingandseeingthisDhamma.’

ThenIwenttoĀḷāraKālāmaandaskedhim:‘FriendKālāma,inwhatwaydo

you declare that by realizing it for yourself with direct knowledge you enter

uponanddwellinthisDhamma?’Inreplyhedeclaredthebaseofnothingness.

“I considered: ‘Not only Āḷāra Kālāma has faith, energy, mindfulness,

concentration,andwisdom.Itoohavefaith,energy,mindfulness,concentration,

and wisdom. Suppose I endeavor to realize the Dhamma that Āḷāra Kālāma

declares he enters upon and dwells in by realizing it for himself with direct

knowledge?’

“IsoonquicklyentereduponanddwelledinthatDhammabyrealizingitfor

myself with direct knowledge. Then I went to Āḷāra Kālāma and asked him:

‘FriendKālāma,isitinthiswaythatyoudeclarethatyouenteruponanddwell

inthisDhammabyrealizingitforyourselfwithdirectknowledge?’—‘Thatis

theway,friend.’—‘Itisinthisway,friend,thatIalsoenteruponanddwellin

thisDhammabyrealizingitformyselfwithdirectknowledge.’—‘Itisagainfor

us, friend, it is a great gain for us that we have such a venerable one for our

fellow monk. So the Dhamma that I declare I enter upon and dwell in by

realizingitformyselfwithdirectknowledgeistheDhammathatyouenterupon

anddwellinbyrealizingitforyourselfwithdirectknowledge.AndtheDhamma

that you enter upon and dwell in by realizing it for yourself with direct

knowledgeistheDhammathatIdeclareIenteruponanddwellinbyrealizingit

formyselfwithdirectknowledge.SoyouknowtheDhammathatIknowandI

know the Dhamma that you know. As I am, so are you; as you are, so am I.

Come,friend,letusnowleadthiscommunitytogether.’

“ThusĀḷāra Kālāma,my teacher, placedme, his pupil, on anequal footing

with himself and awarded me the highest honor. But it occurred to me: ‘This

Dhammadoesnotleadtodisenchantment,todispassion,tocessation,topeace,

todirectknowledge,toenlightenment,toNibbāna,butonlytorebirthinthebase

ofnothingness.’

NotbeingsatisfiedwiththatDhamma,disappointedwithit,I

left.

16.“Stillinsearch,monks,ofwhatiswholesome,seekingthesupremestate

ofsublimepeace,IwenttoUddakaRāmaputtaandsaidtohim:‘Friend,Iwant

to lead the spiritual life in this Dhamma and Discipline.’ Uddaka Rāmaputta

replied:‘Thevenerableonemaystayhere.ThisDhammaissuchthatawiseman

cansoonenteruponanddwellinit,himselfrealizingthroughdirectknowledge

hisownteacher’sdoctrine.’IsoonquicklylearnedthatDhamma.Asfarasmere

lip-reciting and rehearsal of his teaching went, I could speak with knowledge

andassurance,andIclaimed,‘Iknowandsee’—andtherewereotherswhodid

likewise.

“Iconsidered:‘ItwasnotthroughmerefaithalonethatRāmadeclared:“By

realizing it for myself with direct knowledge, I enter upon and dwell in this

Dhamma.”CertainlyRāmadwelledknowingandseeingthisDhamma.’ThenI

went to Uddaka Rāmaputta and asked him: ‘Friend, in what way did Rāma

declarethat by realizing itfor himselfwith directknowledge heentered upon

anddwelledinthisDhamma?’InreplyUddakaRāmaputtadeclaredthebaseof

neither-perception-nor-nonperception.

“Iconsidered:‘NotonlyRāmahadfaith,energy,mindfulness,concentration,

andwisdom.Itoohavefaith,energy,mindfulness,concentration,andwisdom.

SupposeIendeavortorealizetheDhammathatRāmadeclaredheenteredupon

anddwelledinbyrealizingitforhimselfwithdirectknowledge.’

“IsoonquicklyentereduponanddwelledinthatDhammabyrealizingitfor

myselfwithdirectknowledge.ThenIwenttoUddakaRāmaputtaandaskedhim:

‘Friend,wasitinthiswaythatRāmadeclaredthatheentereduponanddwelled

inthisDhammabyrealizingitforhimselfwithdirectknowledge?’—‘Thatisthe

way,friend.’—‘Itisinthisway,friend,thatIalsoenteruponanddwellinthis

Dhammabyrealizingitformyselfwithdirectknowledge.’—‘Itisagainforus,

friend,itisagreatgainforusthatwehavesuchavenerableoneforourfellow

monk.SotheDhammathatRāmadeclaredheentereduponanddwelledinby

realizingitforhimselfwithdirectknowledgeistheDhammathatyouenterupon

anddwellinbyrealizingitforyourselfwithdirectknowledge.AndtheDhamma

that you enter upon and dwell in by realizing it for yourself with direct

knowledgeistheDhammathatRāmadeclaredheentereduponanddwelledin

byrealizingitforhimselfwithdirectknowledge.SoyouknowtheDhammathat

RāmaknewandRāmaknewtheDhammathatyouknow.AsRāmawas,soare

you;asyouare,sowasRāma.Come,friend,nowleadthiscommunity.’

“Thus Uddaka Rāmaputta,my fellow monk, placed me in the position of a

teacher and accorded me the highest honor. But it occurred to me: ‘This

Dhammadoesnotleadtodisenchantment,todispassion,tocessation,topeace,

todirectknowledge,toenlightenment,toNibbāna,butonlytorebirthinthebase

of neither-perception-nor-nonperception. ’ Not being satisfied with that

Dhamma,disappointedwithit,Ileft.

17.“Stillinsearch,monks,ofwhatiswholesome,seekingthesupremestate

of sublime peace, I wandered by stages through the Magadhan country until

eventuallyIarrivedatUruvelānearSenānigama.ThereIsawanagreeablepiece

of ground, a delightful grove with a clear-flowingriver with pleasant, smooth

banksandnearbyavillageforalmsresort.Iconsidered:‘Thisisanagreeable

piece of ground, this is a delightful grove with a clear-flowing river with

pleasant,smoothbanksandnearbyavillageforalmsresort.Thiswillservefor

the striving of a clansman intent on striving.’ And I sat down there thinking:

‘Thiswillserveforstriving.’

18.“Then,monks,beingmyselfsubjecttobirth,havingunderstoodthedanger

inwhatissubjecttobirth,seekingtheunbornsupremesecurityfrombondage,

Nibbāna,Iattainedtheunbornsupremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna;being

myself subject to aging, having understood the danger in what is subject to

aging,seekingtheunagingsupremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna,Iattained

theunagingsupremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna;beingmyselfsubjectto

sickness,havingunderstood thedanger inwhat issubjectto sickness,seeking

the unailing supreme security from bondage, Nibbāna, I attained the unailing

supremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna;beingmyselfsubjecttodeath,having

understoodthedangerinwhatissubjecttodeath,seekingthedeathlesssupreme

securityfrombondage,Nibbāna,Iattainedthedeathlesssupremesecurityfrom

bondage,Nibbāna;beingmyselfsubjecttosorrow,havingunderstoodthedanger

in what is subject to sorrow, seeking the sorrowless supreme security from

bondage, Nibbāna, I attained the sorrowless supreme security from bondage,

Nibbāna;being myself subject to defilement,having understood the danger in

what is subject to defilement, seeking the undefiled supreme security from

bondage, Nibbāna, I attained the undefiled supreme security from bondage,

Nibbāna.Theknowledgeandvisionaroseinme:‘Myliberationisunshakable.

Thisismylastbirth.Nowthereisnomorerenewedexistence.’”

(fromMN26:AriyapariyesanaSutta;I160–67)

(2)TheRealizationoftheThreeTrueKnowledges

11. [Saccaka asked the Blessed One:]

 “Has there never arisen in Master

Gotamaafeelingsopleasantthatitcouldinvadehismindandremain?Hasthere

neverariseninMasterGotamaafeelingsopainfulthatitcouldinvadehismind

andremain?”

12. “Why not, Aggivessana? Here, Aggivessana, before my enlightenment,

whileIwasstillonlyanunenlightenedbodhisatta,Ithought:‘Householdlifeis

crowdedanddusty;lifegoneforthiswideopen.Itisnoteasy,whilelivingina

home,toleadtheholylifeutterlyperfectandpureasapolishedshell.SupposeI

shaveoffmyhairandbeard,putontheochrerobe,andgoforthfromthehome

lifeintohomelessness.’13–16.“Later,whilestillyoung,ablack-hairedyoung

manendowedwiththeblessingofyouth,intheprimeoflife...[asinTextII,3(1)

§§14–17]…AndIsatdowntherethinking:‘Thiswillserveforstriving.’

17. “Now these three similes occurred to me spontaneously, never heard

before.Supposetherewereawetsappypieceofwoodlyinginwater,andaman

camewithanupperfire-stick,thinking:‘Ishalllightafire,Ishallproduceheat.’

Whatdoyouthink,Aggivessana?Couldthemanlightafireandproduceheatby

takingtheupperfire-stickandrubbingitagainstthewetsappypieceofwood

lyinginthewater?”

“No,MasterGotama.Whynot?Becauseitisawetsappypieceofwood,and

it is lying in water. Eventually the man would reap only weariness and

disappointment.”

“Sotoo,Aggivessana,astothoseasceticsandbrahminswhostilldonotlive

bodilywithdrawn from sensual pleasures, and whose sensual desire,affection,

infatuation,thirst,andfeverforsensualpleasureshasnotbeenfullyabandoned

andsuppressedinternally,evenifthosegoodasceticsandbrahminsfeelpainful,

racking,piercingfeelingsduetoexertion,theyareincapableofknowledgeand

visionandsupremeenlightenment;andevenifthosegoodasceticsandbrahmins

donotfeelpainful,racking,piercingfeelingsduetoexertion,theyareincapable

ofknowledgeandvisionandsupremeenlightenment.Thiswasthefirstsimile

thatoccurredtomespontaneously,neverheardbefore.

18. “Again, Aggivessana, a second simile occurred to me spontaneously,

neverheardbefore.Supposetherewereawetsappypieceofwoodlyingondry

landfarfromwater,andamancamewithanupperfire-stick,thinking:‘Ishall

lightafire,Ishallproduceheat.’Whatdoyouthink,Aggivessana?Couldthe

manlightafireandproduceheatbytakingtheupperfire-stickandrubbingit

againstthewetsappypieceofwoodlyingondrylandfarfromwater?”

“No,MasterGotama.Whynot?Becauseitisawetsappypieceofwood,even

though it is lying on dry land far from water. Eventuallythe man would reap

onlywearinessanddisappointment.”

“So too, Aggivessana, as to those ascetics and brahmins who live bodily

withdrawn from sensual pleasures, but whose sensual desire, affection,

infatuation,thirst,andfeverforsensualpleasureshasnotbeenfullyabandoned

andsuppressedinternally,evenifthosegoodasceticsandbrahminsfeelpainful,

racking,piercingfeelingsduetoexertion,theyareincapableofknowledgeand

visionandsupremeenlightenment;andevenifthosegoodasceticsandbrahmins

donotfeelpainful,racking,piercingfeelingsduetoexertion,theyareincapable

ofknowledgeandvisionandsupremeenlightenment.Thiswasthesecondsimile

thatoccurredtomespontaneously,neverheardbefore.

19.“Again,Aggivessana,athirdsimileoccurredtomespontaneously,never

heardbefore.Supposetherewereadrysaplesspieceofwoodlyingondryland

farfromwater,andamancamewithanupperfire-stick,thinking:‘Ishalllighta

fire,Ishallproduceheat.’Whatdoyouthink,Aggivessana?Couldthemanlight

afireandproduceheatbyrubbingitagainstthedrysaplesspieceofwoodlying

ondrylandfarfromwater?”

“Yes,MasterGotama.Whyso?Becauseitisadrysaplesspieceofwood,and

itislyingondrylandfarfromwater.”

“So too, Aggivessana, as to those ascetics and brahmins who live bodily

withdrawn from sensual pleasures, and whose sensual desire, affection,

infatuation,thirst,andfeverforsensualpleasureshasbeenfullyabandonedand

suppressed internally, even if those good ascetics and brahmins feel painful,

racking, piercing feelings due to exertion, they are capable of knowledge and

visionandsupremeenlightenment;andevenifthosegoodasceticsandbrahmins

donotfeelpainful,racking,piercingfeelingsduetoexertion,theyarecapableof

knowledgeandvisionandsupremeenlightenment.

This wasthe third simile

that occurred to me spontaneously, never heard before. These are the three

similesthatoccurredtomespontaneously,neverheardbefore.

20. “I thought: ‘Suppose, with my teeth clenched and my tongue pressed

against the roof of my mouth, I beat down, constrain, and crush mind with

mind.’So,withmyteethclenchedandmytonguepressedagainsttheroofofmy

mouth,Ibeatdown,constrained,andcrushedmindwithmind.WhileIdidso,

sweatranfrommyarmpits.Justasastrongmanmightseizeaweakermanby

theheadorshouldersandbeathimdown,constrainhim,andcrushhim,sotoo,

withmyteethclenchedandmytonguepressedagainsttheroofofmymouth,I

beatdown, constrained, and crushedmind with mind, andsweat ran from my

armpits. But although tireless energy was aroused in me and unremitting

mindfulnesswasestablished,mybodywasoverwroughtandstrainedbecauseI

wasexhaustedbythepainfulstriving.Butsuchpainfulfeelingthataroseinme

didnotinvademymindandremain.

21.“Ithought:‘SupposeIpracticethebreathlessmeditation.’SoIstoppedthe

in-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouthandnose.WhileIdidso,therewas

a loud sound of winds coming out from my ear holes. Just as there is a loud

soundwhenasmith’sbellowsareblown,sotoo,whileIstoppedthein-breaths

and out-breaths through my nose and ears, there was a loud sound of winds

comingoutfrommyearholes.Butalthoughtirelessenergywasarousedinme

and unremitting mindfulness was established, my body was overwrought and

strainedbecauseIwasexhaustedbythepainfulstriving.Butsuchpainfulfeeling

thataroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.

22. “I thought: ‘Suppose I practice further the breathless meditation.’ So I

stoppedthein-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouth,nose,andears.While

I did so, violent winds cut through my head. Just as if a strong man were

pressingagainstmyheadwiththetipofasharpsword,sotoo,whileIstopped

thein-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouth,nose,andears,violentwinds

cut through my head. But although tireless energy was aroused in me and

unremitting mindfulness was established, my body was overwrought and

strainedbecauseIwasexhaustedbythepainfulstriving.Butsuchpainfulfeeling

thataroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.

23. “I thought: ‘Suppose I practice further the breathless meditation.’ So I

stoppedthein-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouth,nose,andears.While

I did so, there were violent pains in my head. Just as if a strong man were

tighteningatoughleatherstraparoundmyheadasaheadband,sotoo,whileI

stoppedthein-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouth,nose,andears,there

wereviolentpainsinmyhead.Butalthoughtirelessenergywasarousedinme

and unremitting mindfulness was established, my body was overwrought and

strainedbecauseIwasexhaustedbythepainfulstriving.Butsuchpainfulfeeling

thataroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.

24. “I thought: ‘Suppose I practice further the breathless meditation.’ So I

stoppedthein-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouth,nose,andears.While

I did so, violent winds carved up my belly. Just as if a skilled butcher or his

apprenticeweretocarveupanox’sbellywithasharpbutcher’sknife,sotoo,

whileIstoppedthein-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouth,nose,andears,

violentwindscarvedupmybelly.Butalthoughtirelessenergywasarousedin

meandunremittingmindfulnesswasestablished,mybodywasoverwroughtand

strainedbecauseIwasexhaustedbythepainfulstriving.Butsuchpainfulfeeling

thataroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.

25. “I thought: ‘Suppose I practice further the breathless meditation.’ So I

stoppedthein-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouth,nose,andears.While

Ididso,therewasaviolentburninginmybody.Justasiftwostrongmenwere

toseizeaweakermanbybotharmsandroasthimoverapitofhotcoals,sotoo,

whileIstoppedthein-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouth,nose,andears,

there was a violent burning in my body. But although tireless energy was

aroused in me and unremitting mindfulness was established, my body was

overwroughtandstrainedbecauseIwasexhaustedbythepainfulstriving.But

suchpainfulfeelingthataroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.

26. “Now when deities saw me, some said: ‘The ascetic Gotama is dead.’

Other deities said: ‘The ascetic Gotama is not dead, he is dying.’ And other

deitiessaid:‘TheasceticGotamaisneitherdeadnordying;heisanarahant,for

suchisthewayarahantsdwell.’

27. “I thought: ‘Suppose I practice entirely cutting off food.’ Then deities

cametomeandsaid:‘Goodsir,donotpracticeentirelycuttingofffood.Ifyou

doso, weshall infuse heavenlyfood intothe pores of your skinand this will

sustainyou.’Iconsidered:‘IfIclaimtobecompletelyfastingwhilethesedeities

infuseheavenlyfoodintotheporesofmyskinandthissustainsme,thenIshall

belying.’SoIdismissedthosedeities,saying:‘Thereisnoneed.’

28.“Ithought:‘SupposeItakeverylittlefood,ahandfuleachtime,whether

ofbeansouporlentilsouporvetchsouporpeasoup.’SoItookverylittlefood,

ahandfuleachtime,whetherofbeansouporlentilsouporvetchsouporpea

soup.WhileIdidso,mybodyreachedastateofextremeemaciation.Becauseof

eating so little my limbs became like the jointed segments of vine stems or

bamboostems. Because of eatingso little my backside became like a camel’s

hoof. Because of eating so little the projections on my spine stood forth like

cordedbeads.Becauseofeatingsolittlemyribsjuttedoutasgauntasthecrazy

raftersofanoldrooflessbarn.Becauseofeatingsolittlethegleamofmyeyes

sankfardownintheirsockets,lookinglikethegleamofwaterthathassunkfar

downinadeepwell.Becauseofeatingsolittlemyscalpshriveledandwithered

as a green bitter gourd shrivels and withers in the wind and sun. Because of

eatingsolittlemybellyskinadheredtomybackbone;thusifItouchedmybelly

skinIencounteredmybackboneandifItouchedmybackboneIencounteredmy

bellyskin.Becauseofeatingsolittle,ifIdefecatedorurinated,Ifelloveronmy

facethere.Becauseofeatingsolittle,ifItriedtoeasemybodybyrubbingmy

limbswithmyhands,thehair,rottedatitsroots,fellfrommybodyasIrubbed.

29. “Now when people saw me, some said: ‘The ascetic Gotama is black.’

Otherpeoplesaid:‘TheasceticGotamaisnotblack;heisbrown.’Otherpeople

said:‘TheasceticGotamaisneitherblacknorbrown;heisgolden-skinned.’So

muchhadtheclear,brightcolorofmyskindeterioratedthrougheatingsolittle.

30.“Ithought:‘Whateverasceticsorbrahminsinthepasthaveexperienced

painful, racking, piercing feelings due to exertion, this is the utmost; there is

none beyond this. And whatever ascetics and brahmins in the future will

experiencepainful,racking,piercingfeelingsduetoexertion,thisistheutmost;

there is none beyond this. And whatever ascetics and brahmins at present

experiencepainful,racking,piercingfeelingsduetoexertion,thisistheutmost;

thereisnonebeyondthis.ButbythisrackingpracticeofausteritiesIhavenot

attained any superhuman distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the

nobleones.Couldtherebeanotherpathtoenlightenment?’

31. “I considered: ‘I recall that when my father the Sakyan was occupied,

whileIwassittinginthecoolshadeofarose-appletree,secludedfromsensual

pleasures,secludedfromunwholesomestates,Ienteredanddwelledinthefirst

jhāna, which is accompanied by thought and examination, with rapture and

happinessbornofseclusion.

Couldthisbethepathtoenlightenment?’Then,

following on that memory, came the realization: ‘This is indeed the path to

enlightenment.’

32.“Ithought:‘WhyamIafraidofthathappinessthathasnothingtodowith

sensualpleasuresandunwholesomestates?’Ithought:‘Iamnotafraidofthat

happiness that has nothing to do with sensual pleasures and unwholesome

states.’

33. “I considered: ‘It is not easy to attain that happiness with a body so

excessively emaciated. Suppose I ate some solid food—some boiled rice and

porridge.’ And I ate some solid food—someboiled rice and porridge. Now at

that time five monks were waiting upon me, thinking: ‘If our ascetic Gotama

achievessomehigherstate,hewillinformus.’ButwhenIatetheboiledriceand

porridge, the five monks were disgusted and left me, thinking: ‘The ascetic

Gotama now lives luxuriously; he has given up his striving and reverted to

luxury.’

34. “Now when I had eaten solid food and regained my strength, then

secludedfrom sensual pleasures,secluded fromunwholesome states,I entered

and dwelled in the first jhāna, which is accompanied by thought and

examination, with rapture and happiness born of seclusion. But such pleasant

feelingthataroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.

35.“Withthesubsidingofthoughtandexamination,Ienteredanddwelledin

the second jhāna, which has internal confidence and unification of mind, is

without thought and examination, and has rapture and happiness born of

concentration.Butsuchpleasantfeelingthataroseinmedidnotinvademymind

andremain.

36. “With the fading away as well of rapture, I dwelled equanimous, and

mindful and clearly comprehending, I experienced happiness with the body; I

enteredanddwelledinthethirdjhānaofwhichthenobleonesdeclare:‘Heis

equanimous, mindful, one who dwells happily.’ But such pleasant feeling that

aroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.

37.“Withtheabandoningofpleasureandpain,andwiththepreviouspassing

awayofjoyanddispleasure,Ienteredanddwelledinthefourthjhāna,whichis

neither painful nor pleasant and includes the purification of mindfulness by

equanimity.Butsuchpleasantfeelingthataroseinmedidnotinvademymind

andremain.

38.“Whenmymindwasthusconcentrated,purified,bright,unblemished,rid

of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to imperturbability, I

directed it to knowledge of the recollection of past lives. I recollected my

manifoldpastlives,thatis,one birth,twobirths,threebirths, four births,five

births,tenbirths,twentybirths,thirtybirths,fortybirths,fiftybirths,ahundred

births, a thousand births, a hundred thousand births, many eons of world-

contraction,manyeonsofworld-expansion,manyeonsofworld-contractionand

expansion:‘ThereIwassonamed,ofsuchaclan,withsuchanappearance,such

wasmynutriment,suchmyexperienceofpleasureandpain,suchmylifespan;

and passing away from there, I was reborn elsewhere; and there tooI was so

named,ofsuchaclan,withsuchanappearance,suchwasmynutriment,such

myexperienceofpleasureandpain,suchmylifespan;andpassingawayfrom

there,Iwasrebornhere.’ThuswiththeiraspectsandparticularsIrecollectedmy

manifoldpastlives.

39.“Thiswasthefirsttrueknowledgeattainedbymeinthefirstwatchofthe

night.Ignorancewasbanishedandtrueknowledgearose,darknesswasbanished

andlightarose,ashappensinonewhodwellsdiligent,ardent,andresolute.But

suchpleasantfeelingthataroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.

40.“Whenmymindwasthusconcentrated,purified,bright,unblemished,rid

of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to imperturbability, I

directed it to knowledge of the passing away and rebirth of beings. With the

divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, I saw beings passing

awayandbeingreborn,inferiorandsuperior,beautifulandugly,fortunateand

unfortunate,andIunderstoodhowbeingsfareonaccordingtotheiractionsthus:

‘Thesebeingswhobehavedwronglybybody,speech,andmind,whoreviledthe

nobleones,heldwrongview,andundertookactionsbasedonwrongview,with

thebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,havebeenreborninastateofmisery,ina

baddestination,inthelowerworld,inhell;butthesebeingswhobehavedwell

bybody,speech,andmind,whodidnotrevilethenobleones,whoheldright

view,andundertookactionbasedonrightview,withthebreakupofthebody,

afterdeath,havebeenreborninagooddestination,inaheavenlyworld.’Thus

with the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, I saw beings

passing away and being reborn, inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly,

fortunate and unfortunate, and I understood how beings fare on according to

theiractions.

41.“Thiswasthesecondtrueknowledgeattainedbymeinthemiddlewatch

ofthe night. Ignorancewas banished andtrue knowledge arose,darkness was

banished and light arose, as happens in one who dwells diligent, ardent, and

resolute.Butsuchpleasantfeelingthataroseinmedidnotinvademymindand

remain.

42.“Whenmymindwasthusconcentrated,purified,bright,unblemished,rid

of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to imperturbability, I

directed it to knowledge of the destruction of the taints. I directly knew as it

actuallyis:‘Thisissuffering.Thisistheoriginofsuffering.Thisisthecessation

of suffering. This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.’ I directly

knewasitactuallyis:‘Thesearethetaints.Thisistheoriginofthetaints.Thisis

thecessationofthetaints.Thisisthewayleadingtothecessationofthetaints.’

43. “When I knew and saw thus, my mind was liberated from the taint of

sensualdesire,fromthetaintofexistence,andfromthetaintofignorance.When

it was liberated, there came the knowledge: ‘It is liberated. ’ I directly knew:

‘Birth is destroyed, the spiritual life has been lived, what had to be done has

beendone,thereisnomorecomingbacktoanystateofbeing.’

44.“Thiswasthethirdtrueknowledgeattainedbymeinthelastwatchofthe

night.Ignorancewasbanishedandtrueknowledgearose,darknesswasbanished

andlightarose,ashappensinonewhodwellsdiligent,ardent,andresolute.But

suchpleasantfeelingthataroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.”

(fromMN36:MahāsaccakaSutta;I240–49)

(3)TheAncientCity

“Monks,beforemyenlightenment,whileIwasstillabodhisatta,notyetfully

enlightened,itoccurredtome:‘Alas,thisworldhasfallenintotrouble,inthatit

isborn,ages,anddies,itpassesawayandisreborn,yetitdoesnotunderstand

the escape from this suffering headed by aging-and-death. When now will an

escapebediscernedfromthissufferingheadedbyaging-and-death?’

“Then, monks, it occurred to me: ‘When what exists does aging-and-death

come to be? By what is aging-and-death conditioned?’ Then, monks, through

carefulattention,theretookplaceinmeabreakthroughbywisdom:‘Whenthere

isbirth,aging-and-deathcomestobe;aging-and-deathhasbirthasitscondition.’

“Then,monks,itoccurredtome:‘Whenwhatexistsdoesbirthcometobe?…

existence?… clinging?… craving?… feeling?… contact? … the six sense

bases?… name-and-form? By what is name-and-form conditioned?’ Then,

monks, through careful attention, there took place in me a breakthrough by

wisdom:‘Whenthereisconsciousness,name-and-formcomestobe;name-and-

formhasconsciousnessasitscondition.’

“Then,monks,itoccurredtome:‘Whenwhatexistsdoesconsciousnesscome

to be? By what is consciousness conditioned?’ Then, monks, through careful

attention, there took place in me a breakthrough by wisdom: ‘When there is

name-and-form,consciousnesscomestobe;consciousnesshasname-and-form

asitscondition.’

“Then,monks,itoccurredtome:‘Thisconsciousnessturns

back;itdoesnotgofurtherthanname-and-form.Itistothisextentthatonemay

be born and age and die, pass away and be reborn, that is, when there is

consciousness with name-and-form as its condition, and name-and-form with

consciousnessasitscondition.

Withname-and-formascondition,thesixsense

bases;withthesixsensebasesascondition,contact….Suchistheoriginofthis

wholemassofsuffering.’“‘Origination,origination’—thus,monks,inregardto

thingsunheardbeforetherearoseinmevision,knowledge,wisdom,penetration,

andlight.

“Then,monks,itoccurredtome:‘Whenwhatdoesnotexistdoesaging-and-

deathnotcometobe?Withthecessationofwhatdoesthecessationofaging-

and-deathcomeabout?’Then,monks,throughcarefulattention,theretookplace

inmeabreakthroughbywisdom:‘Whenthereisnobirth,aging-and-deathdoes

notcometobe;withthecessationofbirthcomescessationofaging-and-death.’

“Itoccurredtome:‘Whenwhatdoesnotexistdoesbirthnotcometobe?…

existence?… clinging?… craving?… feeling?… contact?… the six sense

bases?… name-and-form? With the cessation of what does the cessation of

name-and-formcomeabout?’Then,monks,throughcarefulattention,theretook

placeinmeabreakthroughbywisdom:‘Whenthereisnoconsciousness,name-

and-form does not come to be; with the cessation of consciousness comes

cessationofname-and-form.’

“Itoccurredtome:‘Whenwhatdoesnotexistdoesconsciousnessnotcometo

be?Withthecessationofwhatdoesthecessationofconsciousnesscomeabout?’

Then,monks,throughcarefulattention,theretookplaceinmeabreakthrough

bywisdom:‘Whenthereisnoname-and-form,consciousnessdoesnotcometo

be;withthecessationofname-and-formcomescessationofconsciousness.’

“Then, monks, it occurred to me: ‘I have discovered this path to

enlightenment,thatis,withthecessationofname-and-formcomescessationof

consciousness; with the cessation of consciousness comes cessation of name-

and-form;withthecessationofname-and-form,cessationofthesixsensebases;

with the cessation of the six sense bases, cessation of contact…. Such is the

cessationofthiswholemassofsuffering.’

“‘Cessation,cessation’—thus,monks,inregardtothingsunheardbeforethere

aroseinmevision,knowledge,wisdom,penetration,andlight.

“Suppose, monks, a man wandering through a forest would see an ancient

path,anancientroadtraveleduponbypeopleinthepast.Hewouldfollowitand

wouldseeanancientcity,anancientcapitalthathadbeeninhabitedbypeoplein

thepast,with parks, groves,ponds, and ramparts,adelightful place.Thenthe

manwouldinformthekingoraroyalminister:‘Sire,knowthatwhilewandering

throughtheforestIsawanancientpath,anancientroadtraveleduponbypeople

inthepast.Ifolloweditandsawanancientcity,anancientcapitalthathadbeen

inhabited by people in the past, with parks, groves, ponds, and ramparts, a

delightful place. Renovate that city, sire!’ Then the king or the royal minister

wouldrenovatethecity,andsometimelaterthatcitywouldbecomesuccessful

and prosperous, well populated, filled with people, attained to growth and

expansion.

“So too, monks, I saw the ancient path, the ancient road traveled by the

Perfectly Enlightened Ones of the past. And what is that ancient path, that

ancient road? It is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right

intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right

mindfulness, right concentration. I followed that path and by doing so I have

directlyknownaging-and-death,itsorigin,itscessation,andthewayleadingto

itscessation.Ihavedirectlyknownbirth...existence...clinging...craving...

feeling...contact...thesixsensebases...name-and-form...consciousness ...

volitionalformations,theirorigin,theircessation,andthewayleadingtotheir

cessation.

Havingdirectlyknownthem,Ihaveexplainedthemtothemonks,

thenuns,themalelayfollowers,andthefemalelayfollowers.Thisspirituallife,

monks,hasbecome successful andprosperous, extended, popular,widespread,

wellproclaimedamongdevasandhumans.”

(SN12:65;II104–7)

4.THEDECISIONTOTEACH

19.“Iconsidered:‘ThisDhammathatIhaveattainedisprofound,hardtosee

andhardtounderstand,peacefulandsublime,unattainablebymerereasoning,

subtle,tobeexperiencedbythewise.Butthispopulationdelightsinattachment,

takes delight in attachment, rejoices in attachment.

 It is hard for such a

population to see this truth, namely, specific conditionality, dependent

origination.Anditishardtoseethistruth,namely,thestillingofallformations,

the relinquishing of all acquisitions, the destruction of craving, dispassion,

cessation, Nibbāna.

 If I were to teach the Dhamma, others would not

understandme,andthatwouldbewearyingandtroublesomeforme.’Thereupon

therecametomespontaneouslythesestanzasneverheardbefore:

EnoughwithteachingtheDhamma

ThatevenIfoundhardtoreach;

Foritwillneverbeperceived

Bythosewholiveinlustandhate.



Thosedyedinlust,wrappedindarkness

WillneverdiscernthisabstruseDhamma,

Whichgoesagainsttheworldlystream,

Subtle,deep,anddifficulttosee.

“Consideringthus, my mind inclined to inaction rather than to teaching the

Dhamma.

20.“Then,monks,theBrahmāSahampatiknewwithhismindthethoughtin

mymindandheconsidered:‘Theworldwillbelost,theworldwillperish,since

themindoftheTathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne,inclines

toinactionratherthantoteachingtheDhamma.’Then,justasquicklyasastrong

man might extend his flexed arm or flex his extended arm, the Brahmā

Sahampativanishedinthebrahmaworldandappearedbeforeme.Hearranged

hisupperrobeononeshoulder,andextendinghishandsinreverentialsalutation

towardme,said:‘Venerablesir,lettheBlessedOneteachtheDhamma,letthe

SublimeOneteachtheDhamma.Therearebeingswithlittledustintheireyes

who are perishing through not hearing the Dhamma. There will be those who

willunderstandtheDhamma.’TheBrahmāSahampatispokethus,andthenhe

saidfurther:

‘InMagadhatherehaveappearedtillnow

Impureteachingsdevisedbythosestillstained.

‘OpenthedoorstotheDeathless!Letthemhear

TheDhammathatthestainlessonehasfound.



‘Justasonewhostandsonamountainpeak

Canseebelowthepeopleallaround,

So,Owiseone,all-seeingsage,

AscendthepalaceoftheDhamma.

Letthesorrowlessonesurveythishumanbreed,

Engulfedinsorrow,overcomebybirthandoldage.



‘Arise,victorioushero,caravanleader,

Debtlessone,andwanderintheworld.

LettheBlessedOneteachtheDhamma,

Therewillbethosewhowillunderstand.’

21. “Then I listened to the Brahmā’s pleading, and out of compassion for

beingsIsurveyedtheworldwiththeeyeofaBuddha.Surveyingtheworldwith

theeyeofaBuddha,Isawbeingswithlittledustintheireyesandwithmuch

dustintheireyes,withkeenfacultiesandwithdullfaculties,withgoodqualities

andwithbadqualities,easytoteachandhardtoteach,andsomewhodwelled

seeingfearandblameintheotherworld.Justasinapondofblueorredorwhite

lotuses,somelotusesthatarebornandgrowinthewaterthriveimmersedinthe

waterwithoutrisingoutofit,andsomeotherlotusesthatarebornandgrowin

thewaterrestonthewater’ssurface,andsomeotherlotusesthatarebornand

growinthewaterriseoutofthewaterandstandclear,unwettedbyit;sotoo,

surveyingtheworldwiththeeyeofaBuddha,Isawbeingswithlittledustin

theireyes andwith muchdust intheir eyes, with keen facultiesand with dull

faculties,withgoodqualitiesandwithbadqualities,easytoteachandhardto

teach,andsomewhodwelledseeingfearandblameintheotherworld.ThenI

repliedtotheBrahmāSahampatiinstanzas:

‘OpenforthemarethedoorstotheDeathless,

Letthosewithearsnowshowtheirfaith.

Thinkingitwouldbetroublesome,OBrahmā,

IdidnotspeaktheDhammasubtleandsublime.’

“ThentheBrahmāSahampatithought:‘TheBlessedOnehasconsentedtomy

requestthatheteachtheDhamma.’Andafterpayinghomagetome,keepingme

ontheright,hethereupondepartedatonce.

22.“Iconsideredthus:‘TowhomshouldIfirstteachtheDhamma?Whowill

understand this Dhamma quickly?’ It then occurred to me: ‘Āḷāra Kālāma is

wise,intelligent,anddiscerning;hehaslonghadlittledustinhiseyes.SupposeI

taughttheDhammafirsttoĀḷāraKālāma.Hewillunderstanditquickly.’Then

deitiesapproachedmeandsaid:‘Venerablesir,ĀḷāraKālāmadiedsevendays

ago.’Andtheknowledgeandvisionaroseinme:‘ĀḷāraKālāmadiedsevendays

ago.’ I thought: ‘Āḷāra Kālāma’s loss is a great one. If he had heard this

Dhamma,hewouldhaveunderstooditquickly.’

23.“Iconsideredthus:‘TowhomshouldIfirstteachtheDhamma?Whowill

understandthisDhammaquickly?’Itthenoccurredtome:‘UddakaRāmaputtais

wise,intelligent,anddiscerning;hehaslonghadlittledustinhiseyes.SupposeI

taughttheDhammafirsttoUddakaRāmaputta.Hewillunderstanditquickly.’

Then deities approached me and said: ‘Venerable sir, Uddaka Rāmaputta died

lastnight.’Andtheknowledgeandvisionaroseinme:‘UddakaRāmaputtadied

lastnight.’Ithought:‘UddakaRāmaputta’slossisagreatone.Ifhehadheard

thisDhamma,hewouldhaveunderstooditquickly.’

24.“Iconsideredthus:‘TowhomshouldIfirstteachtheDhamma?Whowill

understandthis Dhammaquickly?’ Itthen occurred to me: ‘Themonks ofthe

groupoffivewhoattendeduponmewhileIwasengagedinmystrivingwere

very helpful.

 Suppose I taught the Dhamma first to them.’ Then I thought:

‘Wherearethemonksofthegroupoffivenowliving?’Andwiththedivineeye,

which is purified and surpasses the human, I saw that they were living at

BārāṇasīintheDeerParkatIsipatana.

25.“Then,monks,whenIhadstayedatUruvelāaslongasIchose,Isetoutto

wanderbystagestoBārāṇasī.BetweenGayāandtheBodhi,theĀjīvakaUpaka

sawmeontheroadandsaid:‘Friend,yourfacultiesareclear,thecolorofyour

skinispureandbright.Underwhomhaveyougoneforth,friend?Whoisyour

teacher? Whose Dhamma do you profess?’ I replied to the Ājīvaka Upaka in

stanzas:

‘Iamonewhohastranscendedall,aknowerofall,

Unsulliedamongallthings,renouncingall,

Bycraving’sceasingfreed.Havingknownthisall

Formyself,towhomshouldIpointasteacher?



‘Ihavenoteacher,andonelikeme

Existsnowhereinalltheworld

Withallitsdevas,becauseIhave

Nopersonformycounterpart.



‘ForIamthearahantintheworld,

Iamtheteachersupreme.

IaloneamaPerfectlyEnlightenedOne

Whosefiresarequenchedandextinguished.



‘IgonowtothecityofKāsi

TosetinmotionthewheelofDhamma.

Inaworldthathasbecomeblind

IgotobeatthedrumoftheDeathless.’

‘Byyourclaims,friend,yououghttobetheuniversalvictor.’

‘Thevictorsarethoselikeme

Whohavewonthedestructionoftaints.

Ihavevanquishedallevilstates,

Therefore,Upaka,Iamavictor.’

“Whenthiswassaid,theĀjīvakaUpakasaid:‘Mayitbeso,friend.’Shaking

hishead,hetookabypathanddeparted.

26.“Then,monks,wanderingbystages,IeventuallycametoBārāṇasī,tothe

DeerParkat Isipatana, andIapproached themonksof thegroupof five.The

monkssawmecominginthedistance,andtheyagreedamongthemselvesthus:

‘Friends,herecomestheasceticGotamawholivesluxuriously,whogaveuphis

strivingandrevertedtoluxury.Weshouldnotpayhomagetohimorriseupfor

himorreceivehisbowlandouterrobe.Butaseatmaybepreparedforhim.Ifhe

likes, he may sit down.’ However, as I approached, those monks found

themselvesunabletokeeptheirpact.Onecametomeetmeandtookmybowl

andouterrobe,anotherpreparedaseat,andanothersetoutwaterformyfeet;

however,theyaddressedmebynameandas‘friend.’

27.“ThereuponItoldthem:‘Monks,donotaddresstheTathāgatabyname

and as “friend.” The Tathāgata is an Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One.

Listen,monks,theDeathlesshasbeenattained.Ishallinstructyou,Ishallteach

youtheDhamma.Practicingasyouareinstructed,byrealizingitforyourselves

hereand now through direct knowledgeyou will soonenter and dwell in that

supremegoal of the holy life for the sake of whichclansmen rightly go forth

fromthehomelifeintohomelessness.’

“When this was said, the monks of the group of five answered me thus:

‘FriendGotama,bytheconduct,thepractice,andtheperformanceofausterities

that you undertook, you did not achieve any superhuman distinction in

knowledgeandvisionworthyofthenobleones.Sinceyounowliveluxuriously,

having given up your striving and reverted to luxury, how could you have

achieved any superhuman distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the

noble ones?’ When this was said, I told them: ‘The Tathāgata does not live

luxuriously, nor has he given up his striving and reverted to luxury. The

Tathāgata is an Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One. Listen, monks, the

Deathlesshasbeenattained…fromthehomelifeintohomelessness.’

“Asecondtimethemonksofthegroupoffivesaidtome:‘FriendGotama…

how could you have achieved any superhuman distinction in knowledge and

visionworthyofthenobleones?’AsecondtimeItoldthem:‘TheTathāgatadoes

notliveluxuriously…fromthehomelifeintohomelessness.’Athirdtimethe

monksofthegroupoffivesaidtome:‘FriendGotama…howcouldyouhave

achieved any superhuman distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the

nobleones?’

28.“WhenthiswassaidIaskedthem:‘Monks,haveyoueverknownmeto

speak like this before?’—‘No, venerable sir.’

—‘Monks, the Tathāgata is an

Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One. Listen, monks, the Deathless has been

attained.Ishallinstructyou,IshallteachyoutheDhamma.Practicingasyouare

instructed,byrealizingitforyourselveshereandnowthroughdirectknowledge,

youwillsoonenteranddwellinthatsupremegoaloftheholylifeforthesakeof

whichclansmenrightlygoforthfromthehomelifeintohomelessness.’

29. “I was able to convince the monks of the group of five.

 Then I

sometimesinstructedtwomonkswhiletheotherthreewentforalms,andthesix

of us lived on what those three monks brought back from their almsround.

SometimesIinstructedthreemonkswhiletheothertwowentforalms,andthe

sixofuslivedonwhatthosetwomonksbroughtbackfromtheiralmsround.

30.“Thenthemonksofthegroupoffive,thustaughtandinstructedbyme,

being themselves subject to birth, having understood the danger in what is

subjectto birth, seeking the unborn supreme security from bondage, Nibbāna,

attainedtheunbornsupremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna;beingthemselves

subjecttoaging,sickness,death,sorrow,anddefilement,havingunderstoodthe

danger in what is subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defilement,

seeking the unaging, unailing, deathless, sorrowless, and undefiled supreme

securityfrombondage,Nibbāna,theyattainedtheunaging,unailing,deathless,

sorrowless, and undefiled supreme security from bondage, Nibbāna. The

knowledgeandvisionaroseinthem:‘Ourliberationisunshakable;thisisour

lastbirth;nowthereisnomorerenewedexistence.’”

(fromMN26:AriyapariyesanaSutta;I167–73)

5.THEFIRSTDISCOURSE

ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingatBārāṇasīin

theDeerParkatIsipatana.TheretheBlessedOneaddressedthemonksofthe

groupoffivethus:

“Monks, these two extremes should not be followed by one who has gone

forthintohomelessness.Whattwo?Thepursuitofsensualhappinessinsensual

pleasures,whichislow,vulgar,thewayofworldlings,ignoble,unbeneficial;and

thepursuitofself-mortification,whichispainful,ignoble,unbeneficial.Without

veering toward either of these extremes, the Tathāgata has awakened to the

middleway,whichgivesrisetovision,whichgivesrisetoknowledge,andleads

topeace,todirectknowledge,toenlightenment,toNibbāna.

“Andwhat,monks,isthatmiddlewayawakenedtobytheTathāgata?Itisthis

Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right

action,rightlivelihood,righteffort,rightmindfulness,rightconcentration.This,

monks, is that middle way awakened to by the Tathāgata, which gives rise to

vision,whichgivesrisetoknowledge,andleadstopeace,todirectknowledge,

toenlightenment,toNibbāna.

“Nowthis,monks,isthenobletruthofsuffering:birthissuffering,agingis

suffering,illnessissuffering,deathissuffering;unionwithwhatisdispleasingis

suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one

wantsissuffering;inbrief,thefiveaggregatessubjecttoclingingaresuffering.

“Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the origin of suffering: it is this

craving that leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust,

seekingdelighthereandthere;thatis,cravingforsensualpleasures,cravingfor

existence,cravingforextermination.

“Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering: it is the

remainderlessfadingawayandcessationofthatsamecraving,thegivingupand

relinquishingofit,freedomfromit,nonattachment.

“Nowthis, monks,is thenoble truthof theway leadingto thecessation of

suffering: it is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right

concentration.

“‘Thisisthenobletruthofsuffering’:thus,monks,inregardtothingsunheard

before,therearoseinmevision,knowledge,wisdom,penetration,andlight.

“‘This noble truth of suffering is to be fully understood’: thus, monks, in

regardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinmevision,knowledge,wisdom,

penetration,andlight.

“‘This noble truth of suffering has been fully understood’: thus, monks, in

regardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinmevision,knowledge,wisdom,

penetration,andlight.

“‘Thisisthenobletruthoftheoriginofsuffering’:thus,monks,inregardto

things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom,

penetration,andlight.

“‘Thisnobletruthoftheoriginofsufferingistobeabandoned’:thus,monks,

inregardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinmevision,knowledge,wisdom,

penetration,andlight.

“‘This noble truth of the origin of suffering has been abandoned’: thus,

monks,inregardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinmevision,knowledge,

wisdom,penetration,andlight.

“‘Thisisthenobletruthofthecessationofsuffering’:thus,monks,inregard

to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom,

penetration,andlight.

“‘Thisnobletruthofthecessationofsufferingistoberealized’:thus,monks,

inregardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinmevision,knowledge,wisdom,

penetration,andlight.

“‘This noble truth of the cessation of suffering has been realized’: thus,

monks,inregardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinmevision,knowledge,

wisdom,penetration,andlight.

“‘Thisisthenobletruthofthewayleadingtothecessationofsuffering’:thus,

monks,inregardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinmevision,knowledge,

wisdom,penetration,andlight.

“‘This noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering is to be

developed’:thus,monks,inregardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinme

vision,knowledge,wisdom,penetration,andlight.

“‘Thisnobletruthofthe way leadingtothecessationof sufferinghasbeen

developed’:thus,monks,inregardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinme

vision,knowledge,wisdom,penetration,andlight.

“Solong,monks,asmyknowledgeandvisionoftheseFourNobleTruthsas

they really are in their three phases and twelve aspects was not thoroughly

purified in this way,

 I did not claim to have awakened to the unsurpassed

perfect enlightenment in this world with its devas, Māra, and Brahmā, in this

populationwithitsasceticsandbrahmins,itsdevasandhumans.Butwhenmy

knowledgeandvisionoftheseFourNobleTruthsastheyreallyareintheirthree

phasesandtwelveaspectswasthoroughlypurifiedinthisway,thenIclaimedto

haveawakenedtotheunsurpassedperfectenlightenmentinthisworldwithits

devas,Māra,andBrahmā,inthispopulationwithitsasceticsandbrahmins,its

devasandhumans.Theknowledgeandvisionaroseinme:‘Unshakableisthe

liberation of my mind. This is my last birth. Now there is no more renewed

existence.’”

This is what the Blessed One said. Elated, the monks of the group of five

delighted in the Blessed One’s statement. And whilethis discoursewas being

spoken,therearoseintheVenerableKoṇḍaññathedust-free,stainlessvisionof

theDhamma:“Whateverissubjecttooriginationisallsubjecttocessation.”

AndwhenthewheeloftheDhammahadbeensetinmotionbytheBlessed

One, the earth-dwelling devas raised a cry: “At Bārāṇasī, in the Deer Park at

Isipatana,thisunsurpassedwheeloftheDhammahasbeensetinmotionbythe

Blessed One, which cannot be stopped by any ascetic or brahmin or deva or

MāraorBrahmāorbyanyoneintheworld.”Havingheardthecryoftheearth-

dwellingdevas,thedevasoftherealmoftheFourGreatKingsraisedacry:“At

Bārāṇasī…thisunsurpassedwheeloftheDhammahasbeensetinmotionby

theBlessedOne,whichcannotbestopped...byanyoneintheworld.”Having

heardthecryofthedevasoftherealmoftheFourGreatKings,theTāvatiṃsa

devas … the Yāma devas … the Tusita devas … the devas who delight in

creating…the devaswho wieldpower over others’ creations… the devasof

Brahmā’scompany

raisedacry:“AtBārāṇasī,intheDeerParkatIsipatana,

thisunsurpassedwheeloftheDhammahasbeensetinmotionbytheBlessed

One, which cannot be stopped by any ascetic or brahmin or deva or Māra or

Brahmāorbyanyoneintheworld.”

Thusatthatmoment,atthatinstant,atthatsecond,thecryspreadasfarasthe

brahma world, and this ten-thousand-fold world system shook, quaked, and

trembled,andanimmeasurablegreatradiancesurpassingthedivinemajestyof

thedevasappearedintheworld.

ThentheBlessedOneutteredthisinspiredutterance:“Koṇḍaññahasindeed

understood! Koṇḍañña has indeed understood!” In this way the Venerable

Koṇḍañña acquired the name “Aññā Koṇḍañña—Koṇḍañña Who Has

Understood.”

(SN56:11:DhammacakkappavattanaSutta;V420–24)

III.ApproachingtheDhamma

INTRODUCTION

One of the most distressing predicaments any earnest, open-minded spiritual

seekermightfaceisthesheerdifficultyofchoosingfromamongthebewildering

diversity of religious and spiritual teachings available. By their very nature,

spiritual teachings make claims upon our allegiance that are absolute and all-

encompassing. Adherents of a particular creed are prone to assert that their

religion alone reveals the final truth about our place in the universe and our

ultimatedestiny;theyboldlyproposethattheirpathaloneoffersthesuremeans

toeternalsalvation.Ifwecouldsuspendallbeliefcommitmentsandcomparethe

competing doctrines impartially, submitting them to empirical tests, we would

haveasure-firemethodofdecidingbetweenthem,andthenourordealwouldbe

over. But it isn’t that simple. Rival religions all propose—or presuppose—

doctrinesthatwecannotdirectlyvalidatebypersonalexperience;theyadvocate

tenetsthatcallforsomedegreeoftrust.So,astheirtenetsandpracticesclash,

werunupagainsttheproblemoffindingsomewaytodecidebetweenthemand

negotiatetheircompetingclaimstotruth.

Onesolutiontothisproblemistodenythatthereisanyrealconflictbetween

alternativebeliefsystems.Theadherentsofthisapproach,whichwemightcall

religious universalism, say that at their core all spiritual traditions teach

essentiallythesamething.Theirformulationsmaydifferbuttheirinnercoreis

the same, expressed differently merely to accord with different sensibilities.

What we need to do, the universalist says, when facedwith differentspiritual

traditions,istoextractthekernelofinnertruthfromthepodsoftheirexoteric

creeds.Fromgroundlevelourgoalslookdifferent,butfromtheheightswewill

findthegoalisthesame;itisliketheviewofthemoonfromdifferentmountain

peaks.Universalistsinmattersofdoctrineoftenendorseeclecticisminpractice,

holdingthatwecanselectwhateverpracticeswepreferandcombinethemlike

dishesatabuffet.

Thissolutiontotheproblemofreligiousdiversityhasanimmediateappealto

those disillusioned with the exclusive claims of dogmatic religion. Honest

critical reflection, however, would show that on the most vital issues the

differentreligionsandspiritualtraditionstakedifferentstandpoints.Theygiveus

verydifferentanswerstoourquestionsconcerningthebasicgroundsandgoals

ofthespiritualquestandoftenthesedifferencesarenotmerelyverbal.Tosweep

them away as being merely verbal may be an effective way of achieving

harmonybetweenfollowersofdifferentbeliefsystems,butitcannotwithstand

closeexamination.Intheend,itisaslittletenableassayingthat,becausethey

havebeaksandwings,eagles,sparrows,andchickensareessentiallythesame

typeofcreature,thedifferencesbetweenthembeingmerelyverbal.

It is not only theistic religions that teach doctrines beyond the range of

immediate empirical confirmation. The Buddha too taught doctrines that an

ordinary person cannot directly confirm by everyday experience, and these

doctrinesarefundamentaltothestructureofhisteaching.Wesaw,forexample,

in the introductions to chapters I and II, that the Nikāyas envisage a universe

withmanydomainsofsentientexistencespreadoutinboundlessspaceandtime,

auniverseinwhichsentientbeingsroamandwanderfromlifetolifeonaccount

oftheirignorance,craving,andkamma.TheNikāyaspresupposethatthroughout

beginninglesstime,Buddhaswithoutnumberhavearisenandturnedthewheel

of the Dhamma, and that each Buddha attains enlightenment after cultivating

spiritualperfectionsover longperiods ofcosmictime. Whenwe approachthe

Dhammawearelikelytoresistsuchbeliefsandfeelthattheymakeexcessive

demands on our capacity for trust. Thus we inevitably run up against the

questionwhether,ifwewishtofollowtheBuddha’steaching,wemusttakeon

boardtheentirepackageofclassicalBuddhistdoctrine.

ForEarlyBuddhism,alltheproblemswefaceindecidinghowfarweshould

go in placing faith can be disposed of at a single stroke. That single stroke

involvesrevertingtodirectexperienceastheultimatebasisforjudgment.Oneof

thedistinctivefeaturesoftheBuddha’steachingistherespectitaccordstodirect

experience.ThetextsofEarlyBuddhismdonotteachasecretdoctrine,nordo

they leave scope for anything like an esoteric path reserved for an élite of

initiatesandwithheldfromothers.AccordingtoTextIII,1,secrecyinareligious

teachingisthehallmarkofwrongviewsandconfusedthinking.Theteachingof

the Buddha shines openly, as radiant and brilliant as the light of the sun and

moon. Freedom from the cloak of secrecy is integral to a teaching that gives

primacytodirectexperience,invitingeachindividualtotestitsprinciplesinthe

crucibleofhisorherownexperience.

Thisdoesnot mean thatanordinary personcanfully validatetheBuddha’s

doctrinebydirectexperiencewithoutspecialeffort.Tothecontrary,theteaching

canonlybefullyrealizedthroughtheachievementofcertainextraordinarytypes

ofexperiencethatarefarbeyondtherangeoftheordinarypersonenmeshedin

theconcernsofmundanelife.However, in sharpcontrasttorevealedreligion,

theBuddhadoesnotdemandthatwebeginourspiritualquestbyplacingfaithin

doctrinesthatliebeyondtherangeofourimmediateexperience.Ratherthanask

us to wrestle with issues that, for us in our present condition , no amount of

experience can decide, he instead asks us to consider a few simple questions

pertainingtoourimmediatewelfareandhappiness,questionsthatwecananswer

on the basis of personal experience. I highlight the expression “for us in our

present condition,” because the fact that we cannot presently validate such

matters does not constitute grounds for rejecting them as invalid or even as

irrelevant.Itonlymeansthatweshouldputthemasideforthetimebeingand

concernourselveswithissuesthatcomewithintherangeofdirectexperience.

The Buddha says that his teaching is about suffering and the cessation of

suffering.ThisstatementdoesnotmeanthattheDhammaisconcernedonlywith

ourexperienceofsufferinginthepresentlife,butitdoesimplythatwecanuse

our present experience, backed by intelligent observation, as a criterion for

determining what is beneficial and what detrimental to our spiritual progress.

Ourmostinsistentexistentialdemand,springingupdeepwithinus,istheneed

forfreedom from harm, sorrow, and distress; or,positively stated, the needto

achieve well-being and happiness. However, to avoid harm and to secure our

well-being,itisnotsufficientforusmerelytohope.Wefirsthavetounderstand

theconditionsonwhichtheydepend.AccordingtotheBuddha,whateverarises,

arises through appropriate causes and conditions, and this applies with equal

force to suffering and happiness. Thus we must ascertain the causes and

conditions that lead to harm and suffering, and likewise the causes and

conditionsthatleadtowell-beingandhappiness.Oncewehaveextractedthese

twoprinciples—theconditionsleadingtoharmandsuffering,andtheconditions

leadingtowell-beingandhappiness—wehaveatourdisposalanoutlineofthe

entireprocessthatleadstotheultimategoal,finalliberationfromsuffering.

Onetextofferinganexcellentexampleofthisapproachisashortdiscoursein

theAṅguttara Nikāya popularly known as the Kālāma Sutta, included asText

III,2.TheKālāmaswereapeoplelivinginaremoteareaoftheGangesplain.

Variousreligiousteachers wouldcome tovisit themand eachwould extolhis

owndoctrineandteardownthedoctrinesofhisrivals.Confusedandperplexed

by this conflict of belief systems, the Kālāmas did not know whom to trust.

When the Buddha passed through their town, they approached him andasked

himtoclearawaytheirdoubts.Thoughthetextdoesnotspecifywhatparticular

issuesweretroublingtheKālāmas,thelaterpartofthediscoursemakesitclear

thattheirperplexitiesrevolvedaroundthequestionsofrebirthandkamma.

TheBuddhabeganbyassuringtheKālāmasthatundersuchcircumstancesit

was proper for them to doubt, for the issues that troubled them were indeed

commonsourcesofdoubtandperplexity.Hethentoldthemnottorelyonten

sourcesofbelief.Fourof these pertaintoestablishedscripturalauthority(oral

tradition,lineageofteaching,hearsay,andcollectionsoftexts);fourtorational

grounds(logic,inferentialreasoning,reasonedcogitation,andtheacceptanceof

aviewafterponderingit);andtwotoauthoritativepersons(impressivespeakers

and respected teachers). This advice is sometimes quoted to prove that the

Buddharejectedallexternalauthoritiesandinvitedeachindividualtofashionhis

orherownpersonalpathtotruth.Readincontext,however,themessageofthe

KālāmaSuttaisquitedifferent.TheBuddhaisnotadvisingtheKālāmas—who,

itmustbestressed,hadatthispointnotyetbecomehisowndisciples—toreject

allauthoritative guidesto spiritual understandingand fall backsolely on their

personalintuition.Rather,heisofferingthemasimpleandpragmaticoutletfrom

themorassofdoubtandperplexityinwhichtheyareimmersed.Bytheuseof

skillful methods of inquiry, he leads them to understand a number of basic

principles that they can verify by their own experience and thereby acquire a

surestartingpointforfurtherspiritualdevelopment.

Always underlying the Buddha’s questions and their replies is the tacit

premisethat peopleare primarilymotivated to actby a concern for theirown

welfareandhappiness. Inasking thisparticularset ofquestions, theBuddha’s

purposeistoleadtheKālāmastoseethat,evenwhenwesuspendallconcern

with future lives, unwholesome mental states such as greed, hatred, and

delusion, and unwholesome actions such as killing and stealing, eventually

redound to one’s own harm and suffering right here and now. Conversely,

wholesome mental states and wholesome actions promote one’s long-term

welfareandhappinesshereandnow.Oncethismuchisseen,theimmediately

visibleharmfulconsequencestowhichunwholesomementalstatesleadbecome

a sufficient reason for abandoning them, while the visible benefits to which

wholesome mental states lead become a sufficient motivation for cultivating

them.Then,whetherornotthereisalifeafterdeath,onehasadequatereasonsin

thepresentlifetoabandonunwholesomementalstatesandcultivatewholesome

mental states. If there is an afterlife, one’s recompense is simply that much

greater.

A similar approach underlies TextIII,3,in which the Buddha demonstrates

howpresentsufferingarisesandceasesincorrelationwithpresentcraving.This

shortsutta,addressedtoalayfollower,conciselyarticulatesthecausalprinciple

thatliesbehindtheFourNobleTruths,butratherthandoingsointheabstract,it

adoptsaconcrete,down-to-earthapproachthathasaremarkablycontemporary

appeal. By using powerful examples drawn from the life of a layman deeply

attachedtohiswifeandson,thesuttamakesadeepandlastingimpressionon

us.

ThefactthatsuchtextsasthissuttaandtheKālāmaSuttadonotdwellonthe

doctrinesofkammaandrebirthdoesnotmean,asissometimesassumed,that

suchteachingsaremereculturalaccretionstotheDhammathatcanbedeletedor

explained away without losing anything essential. It means only that, at the

outset,theDhammacanbeapproachedinwaysthatdonotrequirereferenceto

past and future lives. The Buddha’s teaching has many sides, and thus, from

certainangles,itcanbedirectlyevaluatedagainstourconcernforourpresent

well-being and happiness. Once we see that the practice of the teaching does

indeedbringpeace,joy,andinnersecurityinthisverylife,thiswillinspireour

trustandconfidenceintheDhammaasawhole,includingthoseaspectsthatlie

beyondourpresentcapacityfor personal verification.Ifwewereto undertake

certain practices—practices that require highly refined skills and determined

effort—wewouldbeabletoacquirethefacultiesneededtovalidatethoseother

aspects,suchas thelawof kamma, therealityof rebirth,andthe existence of

supersensiblerealms(seeTextVII,4§§23–24andTextVII,5§§19–20).

Anothermajorproblemthatoftenbesetsspiritualseekersisthedemandsthat

teachersplaceupontheircapacityfortrust.Thisproblemhasbecomeespecially

acuteinourowntime,whenthenewsmediagleefullyspotlightthefrailtiesof

numberlessgurusandjumpatthechancetoshowupanymodern-daysaintas

nothing better than a swindler in robes. But the problem of rogue gurus is a

perennialonebynomeanspeculiartoourage.Wheneveronepersonexercises

spiritualauthorityoverothers,itisonlytooeasyforthatpersontobetemptedto

exploitthetrustothersplaceinhiminwaysthatcanbeseriouslydetrimentalto

himselfandhisdisciples.Whenapupilapproachesateacherwhoclaimstobe

perfectlyenlightenedandthuscapableofteachingthepathtofinalliberation,the

pupil must have some criteria at hand for testing the teacher to determine

whethertheteachertrulymeasuresuptotheloftyclaimshemakesabouthimself

—orthatothersmakeabouthim.

IntheVīmaṃsaka Sutta—Text III,4—the Buddha lays down guidelines by

whichamonkcantest“theTathāgata,”thatis,theBuddha,toevaluatehisclaim

tobeperfectlyenlightened.Onebenchmarkofperfectenlightenmentisfreedom

ofthemindfromalldefilements.IfamonkcannotdirectlyseeintotheBuddha’s

own mind, he can nevertheless rely on indirect evidence to ascertain that the

Buddha is freed from defilements; that is, by evaluating the Buddha’s bodily

deedsand speech he can infer that the Buddha’s mental states are exclusively

pure, uninfluenced by greed, hatred, and delusion. In addition to such

observational inference, the Buddha further encourages the monk to approach

himanddirectlyinquireabouthismentalstates.

OncethepupilgainsconfidencethattheBuddhaisaqualifiedteacher,hethen

puts the Master to the ultimate test. He learns his teaching, enters upon the

practice, and penetrates the Dhamma by direct knowledge. This act of

penetration—here equivalent at minimum to the attainment of stream-entry—

bringsthegainof“invinciblefaith,”thefaithofonewhoisestablisheduponthe

irreversiblepathleadingtofinalrelease.

Takeninisolation,theVīmaṃsakaSuttamightgivetheimpressionthatone

acquiresfaithonlyaftergainingrealizationoftheteaching,andsincerealization

isself-validating,faithwouldthenbecomeredundant.Thisimpression,however,

would be one-sided. The point the sutta is making is that faith becomes

invincibleasa resultof realization,notthat faithfirstenters thespiritualpath

onlywhenoneattainsrealization.Faithisthefirstofthefivespiritualfaculties,

andinsomedegree,astrustingconfidenceintheBuddha’senlightenmentandin

themainprinciplesofhisteaching,itisaprerequisiteforthehighertraining.We

seefaithfunctioninginthispreparatoryroleinTextIII,5,alongexcerptfrom

the Caṅkī Sutta. Here, the Buddha explains that a person who has faith in

something “preserves truth” when he says “this is my faith.” He “preserves

truth” because he merely states what he believes without jumping to the

conclusionthatwhathebelievesisdefinitelytrueandanythingelsecontrarytoit

false.TheBuddhacontraststhe“preservationoftruth”(saccānurakkhanā)with

the “discovery of truth” (saccānubodha), which begins by placing faith in a

teacherwhohasprovedhimselfworthyoftrust.Havinggainedfaithinsucha

teacher,onethenapproacheshimforinstruction,learnstheDhamma,practicesit

(accordingtoaseriesofstepsmorefinelycalibratedthanintheprecedingtext),

andfinallyseesthesupremetruthforoneself.

Thisdoesnotyetmarktheendoftheroadforthedisciple,butonlytheinitial

breakthroughtothetruth,againcorrespondingtotheattainmentofstream-entry.

Having achieved the vision of truth, to reach the “final arrival at truth”

(saccānupatti)—that is, the attainment of arahantship or final liberation—one

mustrepeat,develop,andcultivatethesameseriesofstepsuntilonehasfully

absorbedandassimilatedthesupremetruthdisclosedbythatinitialvision.Thus

theentireprocessoftrainingintheDhammaisrootedinpersonalexperience.

Even faith should be rooted in investigation and inquiry and not based solely

uponemotional leaningsand blindbelief. Faithalone isinsufficientbutis the

doortodeeperlevelsofexperience.Faithservesasaspurtopractice;practice

leads to experiential understanding; and when one’s understanding matures, it

blossomsinfullrealization.

III.APPROACHINGTHEDHAMMA

1.NOTASECRETDOCTRINE

“These three things, monks, are conducted in secret, not openly. What three?

Affairswithwomen,themantrasofthebrahmins,andwrongview.

“Butthesethreethings,monks,shineopenly,notinsecret.Whatthree?The

moon,thesun,andtheDhammaandDisciplineproclaimedbytheTathāgata.”

(AN3:129;I282–83)

2.NODOGMASORBLINDBELIEF

Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was wandering on tour

togetherwithalargeSaṅghaofmonkswhenhearrivedatatownoftheKālāmas

named Kesaputta.

 Now the Kālāmas of Kesaputta heard: “It is said that the

ascetic Gotama, the Sakyan son who went forth from a Sakyan family, has

arrived at Kesaputta. Now a good report about that master Gotama has been

circulating thus: ‘That Blessed One is an arahant, perfectly enlightened,

accomplished in true knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of theworld,

unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the

Enlightened One, the Blessed One. Having realized with his own direct

knowledgethisworldwithitsdevas,Māra,andBrahmā,thispopulationwithits

asceticsandbrahmins,withitsdevasandhumans,hemakesitknowntoothers.

He teaches a Dhamma that is good in the beginning, good in the middle, and

goodintheend,withtherightmeaningandexpression;herevealsaspirituallife

thatisperfectlycompleteandpurified.’Nowitisgoodtoseesucharahants.”

Then the Kālāmas of Kesaputta approached the Blessed One. Some paid

homagetohimandsatdowntooneside;someexchangedgreetingswithhim

and,aftertheirgreetingsandcordialtalk,satdowntooneside;somesalutedhim

reverentiallyandsatdowntooneside;someremainedsilentandsatdowntoone

side.ThentheKālāmassaidtotheBlessedOne:

“Venerablesir, some asceticsand brahmins who come to Kesaputta explain

andelucidatetheirowndoctrines,butdisparage,debunk,revile,andvilifythe

doctrines of others. But then some other ascetics and brahmins come to

Kesaputta,andtheytooexplainandelucidatetheirowndoctrines,butdisparage,

debunk,revile,andvilifythedoctrinesoftheothers.Forus,venerablesir,there

isperplexityanddoubtastowhichofthesegoodasceticsspeaktruthandwhich

speakfalsehood.”

“Itisfittingforyoutobeperplexed,OKālāmas,itisfittingforyoutobein

doubt.Doubthasariseninyouaboutaperplexingmatter.Come,Kālāmas.Do

notgobyoraltradition,bylineageofteaching, by hearsay, byacollectionof

texts, by logic, by inferential reasoning, by reasoned cogitation, by the

acceptanceofaviewafterponderingit,bytheseemingcompetenceofaspeaker,

or because you think, ‘The ascetic is our teacher.’

 But when you know for

yourselves, ‘These things are unwholesome; these things are blamable; these

thingsarecensuredbythewise;thesethings,ifundertakenandpracticed,leadto

harmandsuffering,’thenyoushouldabandonthem.

“Whatdo you think, Kālāmas?Whengreed, hatred, anddelusion arise in a

person, is it for his welfare or harm?”

5—

“For his harm, venerable

sir.”—“Kālāmas,apersonwhoisgreedy,hating,anddeluded,overpoweredby

greed,hatred, and delusion,his thoughts controlledby them, willdestroy life,

takewhatisnotgiven,engageinsexualmisconduct,andtelllies;hewillalso

promptotherstodolikewise.Willthatconducetohisharmandsufferingfora

longtime?”—“Yes,venerablesir.”

“Whatdoyouthink,Kālāmas?Arethesethingswholesomeorunwholesome?

—”Unwholesome, venerable sir.”—“Blamable or blameless?”—“Blamable,

venerable sir.”—“Censured or praised by the wise?”—“Censured, venerable

sir.”—“Undertakenandpracticed,dotheyleadtoharmandsufferingornot,or

howisitinthiscase?”—“Undertakenandpracticed,thesethingsleadtoharm

andsuffering.Soitappearstousinthiscase.”

“Itwasforthisreason,Kālāmas,thatwesaid:Donotgobyoraltradition.…

“Come, Kālāmas. Do not go by oral tradition, by lineage of teaching,by

hearsay,byacollectionoftexts,bylogic,byinferentialreasoning,byreasoned

cogitation, by the acceptance of a view after pondering it, by the seeming

competenceofaspeaker,orbecauseyouthink,‘Theasceticisourteacher.’But

whenyouknowforyourselves,‘Thesethingsarewholesome;thesethingsare

blameless;thesethingsarepraisedbythewise;thesethings,ifundertakenand

practiced,leadtowelfareandhappiness,’thenyoushouldengageinthem.

“Whatdoyouthink,Kālāmas?Whennongreed,nonhatred,andnondelusion

arisein a person, is it for his welfare or harm?”—“For his welfare,venerable

sir.”—“Kālāmas, a person who is without greed, without hatred, without

delusion, not overpowered by greed, hatred, and delusion, his thoughts not

controlledbythem,willabstainfromthedestructionoflife,fromtakingwhatis

notgiven,fromsexualmisconduct,andfromfalsespeech;hewillalsoprompt

otherstodolikewise.Willthatconducetohiswelfareandhappinessforalong

time?”—“Yes,venerablesir.”

“Whatdoyouthink,Kālāmas?Arethesethingswholesomeorunwholesome?

—”Wholesome, venerable sir.”—“Blamable or blameless?” —“Blameless,

venerable sir.”—“Censured or praised by the wise?”—“Praised, venerable

sir.”—“Undertakenandpracticed,dotheyleadtowelfareandhappinessornot,

or how is it in this case?”—“Undertaken and practiced, these things lead to

welfareandhappiness.Soitappearstousinthiscase.”

“It was for this reason, Kālāmas, that we said: Do not go upon oral

tradition….

“Then, Kālāmas, that noble disciple—devoid of covetousness, devoid of ill

will,unconfused, clearly comprehending, ever mindful—dwells pervading one

quarterwithamindimbuedwithloving-kindness,likewisethesecondquarter,

thethird,andthefourth.

Thusabove,below,across,andeverywhere,andtoall

as to himself, he dwells pervading the entire world with a mind imbued with

loving-kindness,vast,exalted,measureless,withouthostilityandwithoutillwill.

“He dwells pervading one quarter with a mind imbued with compassion ...

withaltruisticjoy...withequanimity,likewisethesecondquarter,thethird,and

thefourth.Thusabove,below,across,andeverywhere,andtoallastohimself,

hedwellspervadingtheentireworldwithamindimbuedwithequanimity,vast,

exalted,measureless,withouthostilityandwithoutillwill.

“When,Kālāmas,thisnobledisciplehasthusmadehismindfreeofenmity,

freeofillwill,uncorruptedandpure,hehas won fourassurancesinthisvery

life.

“Thefirstassurancehehaswonisthis:‘Ifthereisanotherworld,andifgood

andbaddeedsbearfruitandyieldresults,itispossiblethatwiththebreakupof

thebody,afterdeath,Ishallariseinagooddestination,inaheavenlyworld.’

“Thesecondassurancehehaswonisthis:‘Ifthereisnootherworld,andif

goodand baddeeds do notbear fruitand yield results,still right here, inthis

verylife,Ilivehappily,freeofenmityandillwill.

“Thethirdassurancehehaswonisthis:‘Supposeevilbefallstheevil-doer.

Then,asIdonotintendevilforanyone,howcansufferingafflictme,onewho

doesnoevildeed?’

“Thefourth assurancehe has wonis this: ‘Supposeevil doesnot befall the

evil-doer.ThenrighthereIseemyselfpurifiedinbothrespects.’

“When,Kālāmas,thisnobledisciplehasthusmadehismindfreeofenmity,

freeofillwill,uncorrupted,andpure,hehaswonthesefourassurancesinthis

verylife.”

“Soitis,BlessedOne!Soitis,FortunateOne!Whenthisnobledisciplehas

thusmadehismindfreeofenmity,freeofillwill,uncorruptedandpure,hehas

wonthesefourassurancesinthisverylife.

“Magnificent,venerablesir!Magnificent,venerablesir!TheBlessedOnehas

madetheDhammaclearinmanyways,asthoughhewereturninguprightwhat

hadbeenoverthrown,revealingwhatwashidden,showingthewaytoonewho

waslost,orholdingupalampinthedarknesssothosewithgoodeyesightcan

seeforms.WenowgoforrefugetotheBlessedOne,totheDhamma,andtothe

Saṅghaofmonks.LettheBlessedOneacceptusaslayfollowerswhohavegone

forrefugefromtodayuntillife’send.”

(AN3:65;I188–93)

3.THEVISIBLEORIGINANDPASSINGAWAYOFSUFFERING

OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingatatownoftheMallansnamed

Uruvelakappa.ThenBhadrakatheheadman

approachedtheBlessedOne,paid

homage to him, sat down to one side, and said to him: “It would be good,

venerable sir, if the Blessed One would teach me about the origin and the

passingawayofsuffering.”

“If,headman,Iweretoteachyouabouttheoriginandthe passingawayof

sufferingwithreferencetothepast,saying,‘Soitwasinthepast,’perplexityand

uncertaintyaboutthatmightariseinyou.AndifIweretoteachyouaboutthe

originandthepassingawayofsufferingwithreferencetothefuture,saying,‘So

itwillbeinthefuture,’perplexityanduncertaintyaboutthatmightariseinyou.

Instead,headman,whileIamsittingrighthere,andyouaresittingrightthere,I

will teach you about the origin and the passing away of suffering. Listen and

attendclosely,Iwillspeak.”

“Yes,venerablesir,”Bhadrakareplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:

“What do you think, headman? Are there any people in Uruvelakappa on

whoseaccountsorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespairwouldarisein

youiftheyweretobeexecuted,imprisoned,fined,orcensured?”

“Therearesuchpeople,venerablesir.”

“But are there any people in Uruvelakappa on whose account sorrow,

lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair would not arise in you in such an

event?”

“Therearesuchpeople,venerablesir.”

“Whyisit,headman,thatinrelationtosomepeopleinUruvelakappasorrow,

lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespairwouldariseinyouiftheyweretobe

executed,imprisoned,fined,orcensured,whileinregardtootherstheywould

notariseinyou?”

“Those people in Uruvelakappa, venerable sir, in relation to whom sorrow,

lamentation,pain,dejection, and despairwould arisein meifthey wereto be

executed,imprisoned,fined,orcensured—thesearetheonesforwhomIhave

desire and attachment. But those people in Uruvelakappain relationto whom

theywouldnotariseinme—thesearetheonesforwhomIhavenodesireand

attachment.”

“Headman,bymeansofthisprinciplethatisseen,understood,immediately

attained, fathomed, apply the method to the past and to the future thus:

‘Whateversufferingaroseinthepast,allthataroserootedindesire,withdesire

asitssource;fordesireistherootofsuffering.Whateversufferingwillarisein

thefuture,allthatwillariserootedindesire,withdesireasitssource;fordesire

istherootofsuffering.’”

“Itiswonderful,venerablesir!Itisamazing,venerablesir!Howwellthathas

beenstatedbytheBlessedOne:‘Whateversufferingarises,allthatisrootedin

desire,hasdesireasitssource;fordesireistherootofsuffering.’

Venerable

sir,IhaveasonnamedCiravāsī,whostaysatanoutsideresidence.Iriseearly

andsendaman,saying,‘Go,man,andfindouthowCiravāsīis.’Untilthatman

returns,venerablesir,Iamupset,thinking,‘IhopeCiravāsīhasnotmetwithany

affliction!’”

“Whatdoyouthink,headman?IfCiravāsīweretobeexecuted,imprisoned,

fined,orcensured,wouldsorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespairarise

inyou?”

“Venerablesir,ifCiravāsīweretobeexecuted,imprisoned,fined,orcensured,

even my life would seem futile, so how could sorrow, lamentation, pain,

dejection,anddespairnotariseinme?”

“Inthiswaytoo,headman,itcanbeunderstood:‘Whateversufferingarises,

allthatarisesrootedindesire,withdesireasitssource;fordesireistherootof

suffering.’

“Whatdoyouthink,headman?Beforeyousawyourwifeorheardabouther,

didyouhaveanydesire,attachment,oraffectionforher?”

“No,venerablesir.”

“Thenwasit,headman,onlywhenyousawherorheardaboutherthatthis

desire,attachment,andaffectionaroseinyou?”

“Yes,venerablesir.”

“Whatdoyouthink,headman?Ifyourwifeweretobeexecuted,imprisoned,

fined,orcensured,wouldsorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespairarise

inyou?”

“Venerablesir,ifmywifeweretobeexecuted,imprisoned,fined,orcensured,

even my life would seem futile, so how could sorrow, lamentation, pain,

dejection,anddespairnotariseinme?”

“Inthiswaytoo,headman,itcanbeunderstood:‘Whateversufferingarises,

allthatarisesrootedindesire,withdesireasitssource;fordesireistherootof

suffering.’”

(SN42:11;IV327–30)

4.INVESTIGATETHETEACHERHIMSELF

1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatSāvatthīin

Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s Park. There he addressedthe monks thus:

“Monks!”—“Venerablesir!”theyreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:

2.“Monks,amonkwhoisaninquirer,notknowinghowtogaugeanother’s

mind,

 should make an investigation of the Tathāgata in order to find out

whetherornotheisperfectlyenlightened.”

3.“Venerablesir,ourteachingsarerootedintheBlessedOne,guidedbythe

Blessed One, have the Blessed One as their resort. It would be good if the

BlessedOnewouldexplainthemeaningofthesewords.Havinghearditfrom

him,themonkswillrememberit.”

“Thenlisten,monks,andattendcloselytowhatIshallsay.”

“Yes,venerablesir,”themonksreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:

4.“Monks,amonkwhoisaninquirer,notknowinghowtogaugeanother’s

mind,shouldinvestigatetheTathāgatawithrespecttotwokindsofstates,states

cognizable through the eye and through the ear thus: ‘Are there found in the

Tathāgata or not any defiled states cognizable through the eye or through the

ear?’

 When he investigates him, he comes to know: ‘No defiled states

cognizablethroughtheeyeorthroughtheeararefoundintheTathāgata.’

5.“Whenhecomestoknowthis,heinvestigateshimfurtherthus:‘Arethere

found in theTathāgata or not any mixed states cognizable through the eye or

throughtheear?’

 When he investigates him, he comes to know: ‘No mixed

statescognizablethroughtheeyeorthroughtheeararefoundintheTathāgata.’

6.“Whenhecomestoknowthis,heinvestigateshimfurtherthus:‘Arethere

found in the Tathāgata or not cleansed states cognizable through the eye or

throughtheear?’Whenheinvestigateshim,hecomestoknow:‘Cleansedstates

cognizablethroughtheeyeorthroughtheeararefoundintheTathāgata.’

7.“Whenhecomestoknowthis,heinvestigateshimfurtherthus:‘Hasthis

venerableoneattainedthiswholesomestateoveralongtimeordidheattainit

recently?’Whenheinvestigateshim,hecomestoknow:‘Thisvenerableonehas

attainedthiswholesomestateoveralongtime;hedidnotattainitonlyrecently.’

8.“Whenhecomestoknowthis,heinvestigateshimfurtherthus:‘Hasthis

venerableoneacquiredrenownandattainedfame,sothatthedangers[connected

withrenownandfame]arefoundinhim?’For,monks,aslongasamonkhasnot

acquired renown and attained fame, the dangers [connected with renown and

fame]arenotfoundinhim;butwhenhehasacquiredrenownandattainedfame,

thosedangersarefoundinhim.

Whenheinvestigateshim,hecomestoknow:

‘This venerable one has acquired renown and attained fame, but the dangers

[connectedwithrenownandfame]arenotfoundinhim.’

9. “When he comes to know this, he investigates him further thus: ‘Is this

venerableonerestrainedwithoutfear,notrestrainedbyfear,anddoesheavoid

indulginginsensualpleasuresbecauseheiswithoutlustthroughthedestruction

oflust?’Whenheinvestigateshim,hecomestoknow:‘Thisvenerableoneis

restrainedwithoutfear,notrestrainedbyfear,andheavoidsindulginginsensual

pleasurebecauseheiswithoutlustthroughthedestructionoflust.’

10. “Now, monks, if others should ask that monk thus: ‘What are the

venerable one’s reasons and what is his evidence whereby he says: “That

venerable one is restrained without fear, not restrained by fear, and he avoids

indulginginsensualpleasuresbecauseheiswithoutlustthroughthedestruction

of lust”?’—answering rightly, that monk would answer thus: ‘Whether that

venerableonedwellsintheSaṅghaoralone,whilesometherearewellbehaved

andsomeareillbehavedandsomethereteachagroup,whilesomehereareseen

concernedaboutmaterialthingsandsomeareunsulliedbymaterialthings,still

thatvenerableonedoesnotdespiseanyonebecauseofthat.

AndIhaveheard

andlearnedthisfromtheBlessedOne’sownlips:“Iamrestrainedwithoutfear,

notrestrainedbyfear,andIavoidindulginginsensualpleasuresbecauseIam

withoutlustthroughthedestructionoflust.”’

11.“TheTathāgata,monks,shouldbequestionedfurtheraboutthatthus:‘Are

therefoundintheTathāgataornotanydefiledstatescognizablethroughtheeye

or through the ear?’ The Tathāgata would answer thus: ‘No defiled states

cognizablethroughtheeyeorthroughtheeararefoundintheTathāgata.’

12. “If asked, ‘Are there found in the Tathāgata or not any mixed states

cognizablethroughtheeyeorthroughtheear?’theTathāgatawouldanswerthus:

‘Nomixedstatescognizablethroughtheeyeorthroughtheeararefoundinthe

Tathāgata.’

13. “If asked, ‘Are there found in the Tathāgata or not cleansed states

cognizablethroughtheeyeorthroughtheear?’theTathāgatawouldanswerthus:

‘Cleansedstatescognizablethroughtheeyeorthroughtheeararefoundinthe

Tathāgata. They are my pathway and my domain, yet I do not identify with

them.’

14.“Monks,adiscipleshouldapproachtheTeacherwhospeaksthusinorder

toheartheDhamma.TheTeacherteacheshimtheDhammawithitssuccessively

higherlevels,withitssuccessivelymoresublimelevels,withitsdarkandbright

counterparts.AstheTeacherteachestheDhammatoamonkinthisway,through

directknowledgeofacertainteachinghereinthatDhamma,themonkcomesto

a conclusion about the teachings.

 He places confidence in the Teacher thus:

‘TheBlessedOneisperfectlyenlightened,theDhammaiswellproclaimedby

theBlessedOne,theSaṅghaispracticingthegoodway.’

15.“Nowifothersshouldaskthatmonkthus:‘Whatarethevenerableone’s

reasonsandwhatishisevidencewherebyhesays,“TheBlessedOneisperfectly

enlightened,theDhammaiswellproclaimedbytheBlessedOne,theSaṅghais

practicingthegoodway”?’—answeringrightly,thatmonkwouldanswerthus:

‘Here,friends,IapproachedtheBlessedOneinordertoheartheDhamma.The

BlessedOnetaughtmetheDhammawithitssuccessivelyhigherlevels,withits

successivelymoresublimelevels,withitsdarkandbrightcounterparts.Asthe

BlessedOnetaughttheDhammatomeinthisway,throughdirectknowledgeof

a certain teaching here in that Dhamma, I came to a conclusion about the

teachings.IplacedconfidenceintheTeacherthus:“TheBlessedOneisperfectly

enlightened,theDhammaiswellproclaimedbytheBlessedOne,theSaṅghais

practicingthegoodway.”’

16.“Monks,whenanyone’sfaithhasbeenplanted,rooted,andestablishedin

theTathāgatathroughthesereasons,terms,andphrases, hisfaithissaid to be

supported by reasons, rooted in vision, firm; it is invincible by any ascetic or

brahminordevaorMāraorBrahmāorbyanyoneintheworld.

Thatishow,

monks, there is an investigation of the Tathāgata in accordance with the

Dhamma,andthatishowtheTathāgataiswellinvestigatedinaccordancewith

theDhamma.”

ThatiswhattheBlessedOnesaid.Themonksweresatisfiedanddelightedin

theBlessedOne’swords.

(MN47:VīmaṃsakaSutta;I317–20)

5.STEPSTOWARDTHEREALIZATIONOFTRUTH

10.ThenthebrahminCaṅkī,

togetherwithalargecompanyofbrahmins,went

totheBlessedOne,exchangedgreetingswithhim,andsatdownatoneside.

11.NowonthatoccasiontheBlessedOnewasseatedfinishingsomeamiable

talkwithsomeveryseniorbrahmins.Atthetime,sittingintheassembly,wasa

brahminstudentnamedKāpaṭhika.Young,shaven-headed,sixteenyearsold,he

wasamasterofthethreeVedaswiththeirvocabularies,liturgy,phonology,and

etymology,andthehistoriesasafifth;skilledinphilologyandgrammar,hewas

fullyversedinnaturalphilosophyandinthemarks of agreatman.Whilethe

veryseniorbrahminswereconversingwiththeBlessedOne,herepeatedlybroke

inandinterruptedtheirtalk.ThentheBlessedOnerebukedthebrahminstudent

Kāpaṭhika thus: “The honorable Bhāradvāja

shouldn’t break in and interrupt

thetalkoftheveryseniorbrahminswhiletheyareconversing.Heshouldwait

untilthetalkisfinished.”

When this was said, the brahmin Caṅkī said to the Blessed One: “Master

Gotamashouldn’trebukethebrahminstudentKāpaṭhika.Thisbrahminstudent

isverylearned;hehasagooddelivery;heiswise.Hecanwelltakepartinthis

discussionwithMasterGotama.”

12. Then the Blessed One thought: “Surely, since the brahmins honor him

thus,thebrahminstudentKāpaṭhikamustbeaccomplishedinthescripturesof

thethreeVedas.”

Then the brahmin student Kāpaṭhika thought: “When the ascetic Gotama

catchesmyeye,Ishallaskhimaquestion.”

Then, knowing with his own mind the thought in the brahmin student

Kāpaṭhika’smind,theBlessedOneturnedhiseyetowardhim.Thenthebrahmin

studentKāpaṭhikathought:“TheasceticGotamahasturnedtowardme.Suppose

I ask him a question.” Then he said to the Blessed One: “Master Gotama, in

regard to the ancient brahmin hymns that have come down through oral

transmission, preserved in the collections, the brahmins come to the definite

conclusion: ‘Only this is true, anything else is wrong.’ What does Master

Gotamasayaboutthis?”

13. “How then, Bhāradvāja, among the brahmins is there even a single

brahminwhosaysthus:‘Iknowthis,Iseethis:onlythisistrue,anythingelseis

wrong’?”—“No,MasterGotama.”

“Howthen,Bhāradvāja,amongthebrahminsisthereevenasingleteacheror

asingleteacher’steacherback totheseventhgenerationofteacherswhosays

thus:‘Iknowthis,Iseethis:onlythisistrue,anythingelseiswrong’?”—“No,

MasterGotama.”

“Howthen,Bhāradvāja,theancientbrahminseers,thecreatorsofthehymns,

thecomposersofthehymns,whoseancienthymnsthatwereformerlychanted,

uttered,andcompiled,thebrahminsnowadaysstillchantandrepeat,repeating

what was spoken and reciting what was recited—that is, Aṭṭhaka, Vāmaka,

Vāmadeva, Vessāmitta, Yamataggi, Angirasa, Bhāradvāja, Vāseṭṭha, Kassapa,

andBhagu

—dideventheseancientbrahminseerssaythus:‘Weknowthis,we

seethis:onlythisistrue,anythingelseiswrong’?”—“No,MasterGotama.”

“So,Bhāradvāja,itseemsthatamongthebrahminsthereisnotevenasingle

brahminwhosaysthus:‘Iknowthis,Iseethis:onlythisistrue,anythingelseis

wrong.’Andamongthebrahminsthereisnotevenasingleteacherorasingle

teacher’steacherbackto the seventhgenerationofteachers,whosaysthus:‘I

knowthis,Iseethis:onlythisistrue,anythingelseiswrong.’Andtheancient

brahminseers,thecreatorsofthehymns,thecomposersofthehymns...even

theseancientbrahminseersdidnotsaythus:‘Weknowthis,weseethis:only

thisistrue,anythingelseiswrong.’Supposetherewereafileofblindmeneach

intouchwiththenext:thefirstonedoesnotsee,themiddleonedoesnotsee,

andthelastonedoesnotsee.Sotoo,Bhāradvāja,inregardtotheirstatementthe

brahmins seem to be like a file of blind men: the first one does not see, the

middle one does not see, and the last one does not see. What do you think,

Bhāradvāja, that being so, does not the faith of the brahmins turn out to be

groundless?”

14.“Thebrahminshonorthisnotonlyoutoffaith,MasterGotama.Theyalso

honoritasoraltradition.”

“Bhāradvāja, first you took your stand on faith, now you speak of oral

tradition.Thereare five things, Bhāradvāja,thatmayturnoutintwodifferent

ways here and now. What five? Faith, approval, oral tradition, reasoned

cogitation, and acceptance of a view as a result of pondering it.

 These five

thingsmayturnoutintwodifferentwayshereandnow.Nowsomethingmaybe

fullyacceptedoutoffaith,yetitmaybeempty,hollow,andfalse;butsomething

else may not be fully accepted out of faith, yet it may be factual, true, and

unmistaken.Again,somethingmaybefullyapprovedof…welltransmitted…

well cogitated ... well pondered, yet it may be empty, hollow, and false; but

something else may not be well pondered, yet it may be factual, true, and

unmistaken. [Under these conditions] it is not proper for a wise man who

preservestruthtocometothedefiniteconclusion:‘Onlythisistrue,anything

elseiswrong.’”

15. “But, Master Gotama, in what way is there the preservation of truth?

Howdoesonepreservetruth?WeaskMasterGotamaaboutthepreservationof

truth.”

“Ifapersonhasfaith,Bhāradvāja,hepreservestruthwhenhesays:‘Myfaith

isthus’;buthedoesnotyetcometothedefiniteconclusion:‘Onlythisistrue,

anything else is wrong.’ In this way, Bhāradvāja, there is the preservation of

truth;inthiswayhepreservestruth;inthiswaywedescribethepreservationof

truth.Butasyetthereisnodiscoveryoftruth.

“Ifapersonapprovesofsomething…ifhereceivesanoraltradition…ifhe

[reachesaconclusionbasedon]reasonedcogitation…ifheacceptsaviewasa

resultofponderingit,hepreservestruthwhenhesays:‘TheviewthatIacceptas

a result of pondering it is thus’; but he does not yet come to the definite

conclusion: ‘Only this is true, anything else is wrong.’ In this way too,

Bhāradvāja,thereisthepreservationoftruth;inthiswayhepreservestruth;in

thiswaywedescribethepreservationoftruth.Butasyetthereisnodiscoveryof

truth.”

16.“Inthatway,MasterGotama,thereisthepreservationoftruth;inthatway

onepreservestruth;inthatwaywerecognizethepreservationoftruth.Butin

whatway,MasterGotama,istherethediscoveryoftruth?Inwhatwaydoesone

discovertruth?WeaskMasterGotamaaboutthediscoveryoftruth.”

17.“Here,Bhāradvāja,amonkmaybelivingindependenceonsomevillage

ortown.Thenahouseholderorahouseholder’ssongoestohimandinvestigates

him in regard to three kinds of states: in regard to states based on greed, in

regardtostatesbasedonhate,andin regard tostatesbasedondelusion:‘Are

thereinthismonkanystatesbasedongreedsuchthat,withhismindobsessed

bythosestates,whilenotknowinghemightsay,“Iknow,”orwhilenotseeing

hemightsay,“Isee,”orhemighturgeotherstoactinawaythatwouldleadto

theirharmandsufferingforalongtime?’Asheinvestigateshimhecomesto

know:‘Thereare no suchstatesbased ongreedin thismonk.The bodilyand

verbal behavior of this monk are not those of one affected by greed. And the

Dhamma that he teaches is profound, hard to see and hard to understand,

peacefulandsublime,unattainablebymerereasoning,subtle,tobeexperienced

bythewise.ThisDhammacannoteasilybetaughtbyoneaffectedbygreed.’

18.“Whenhehasinvestigatedhimandhasseenthatheispurifiedfromstates

basedongreed,henextinvestigateshiminregardtostatesbasedonhate:‘Are

thereinthismonkanystatesbasedonhatesuchthat,withhismindobsessedby

thosestates...hemighturgeotherstoactinawaythatwouldleadtotheirharm

andsufferingforalongtime?’Asheinvestigateshim,hecomestoknow:‘There

arenosuchstatesbasedonhateinthismonk.Thebodilyandverbalbehaviorof

thismonkarenotthoseofoneaffectedbyhate.AndtheDhammathatheteaches

isprofound… tobe experiencedby thewise.This Dhammacannot easily be

taughtbyoneaffectedbyhate.’

19.“Whenhehasinvestigatedhimandhasseenthatheispurifiedfromstates

based on hate, he next investigates him in regard to states based on delusion:

‘Aretherein this monkanystates basedondelusion suchthat,with his mind

obsessedbythosestates...hemighturgeotherstoactinawaythatwouldlead

totheirharmandsufferingforalongtime?’Asheinvestigateshim,hecomesto

know:‘Therearenosuchstatesbasedondelusioninthismonk.Thebodilyand

verbalbehaviorofthismonkarenotthoseofoneaffectedbydelusion.Andthe

Dhamma that he teaches is profound … to be experienced by the wise. This

Dhammacannoteasilybetaughtbyoneaffectedbydelusion.’

20.“Whenhehasinvestigatedhimandhasseenthatheispurifiedfromstates

basedondelusion,thenheplacesfaithinhim;filledwithfaithhevisitshimand

paysrespecttohim;havingpaidrespecttohim,hegivesear;whenhegivesear,

hehearstheDhamma;havingheardtheDhamma,hememorizesitandexamines

the meaning of the teachings he has memorized; when he examines their

meaning,heacceptsthoseteachingsasaresultofponderingthem;whenhehas

acceptedthoseteachingsasaresultofponderingthem,desirespringsup;when

desirehassprungup,heapplieshiswill;havingappliedhiswill,hescrutinizes;

havingscrutinized,hestrives;resolutelystriving,herealizeswiththebodythe

supreme truth and sees it by penetrating it with wisdom.

 In this way,

Bhāradvāja,thereisthediscoveryof truth;inthiswayone discoverstruth;in

thiswaywedescribethediscoveryoftruth.Butasyetthereisnofinalarrivalat

truth.”

21.“Inthatway,MasterGotama,thereisthediscoveryoftruth;inthatway

onediscoverstruth;inthatwaywerecognizethediscoveryoftruth.Butinwhat

way, Master Gotama, is there the finalarrival at truth?In what waydoes one

finallyarriveattruth?WeaskMasterGotamaaboutthefinalarrivalattruth.”

“Thefinalarrivalattruth,Bhāradvāja,liesinthe repetition,development,and

cultivationofthosesamethings.Inthisway,Bhāradvāja,thereisthefinalarrival

attruth;inthiswayonefinallyarrivesattruth;inthiswaywedescribethefinal

arrivalattruth.”

22.“Inthatway,MasterGotama,thereisthefinalarrivalattruth;inthatway

onefinallyarrivesattruth;inthatwaywerecognizethefinalarrivalattruth.But

what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for the final arrival at truth? We ask

MasterGotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforthefinalarrivalattruth.”

“Strivingismosthelpfulforthefinalarrivalattruth,Bhāradvāja.Ifonedoes

notstrive,onewillnotfinallyarriveattruth;butbecauseonestrives,onedoes

finallyarriveattruth.Thatiswhystrivingismosthelpfulforthefinalarrivalat

truth.”

23.“Butwhat,MasterGotama,ismosthelpfulforstriving?WeaskMaster

Gotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforstriving.”

“Scrutinyismosthelpfulforstriving,Bhāradvāja.Ifonedoesnotscrutinize,

onewillnotstrive;butbecauseonescrutinizes,onestrives.Thatiswhyscrutiny

ismosthelpfulforstriving.”

24.“Butwhat,MasterGotama,ismosthelpfulforscrutiny?WeaskMaster

Gotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforscrutiny.”

“Applicationofthewillismosthelpfulforscrutiny,Bhāradvāja.Ifonedoes

notapplyone’swill,onewillnotscrutinize;butbecauseoneappliesone’swill,

onescrutinizes.Thatiswhyapplicationofthewillismosthelpfulforscrutiny.”

25.“Butwhat,MasterGotama,ismosthelpfulforapplicationofthewill?We

askMasterGotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforapplicationofthewill.”

“Desireismosthelpfulforapplicationofthewill,Bhāradvāja.Ifonedoesnot

arousedesire,onewillnotapplyone’swill;butbecauseonearousesdesire,one

appliesone’swill.Thatiswhydesireismosthelpfulforapplicationofthewill.”

26. “But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for desire? We ask Master

Gotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulfordesire.”

“Accepting the teachings as a result of pondering them is most helpful for

desire,Bhāradvāja.Ifonedoesnotaccepttheteachingsasaresultofpondering

them,desirewillnotspringup;butbecauseoneacceptstheteachingsasaresult

ofponderingthem,desirespringsup.Thatiswhyacceptingtheteachingsasa

resultofponderingthemismosthelpfulfordesire.”

27.“Butwhat,MasterGotama,ismosthelpfulforacceptingtheteachingsasa

resultofponderingthem?WeaskMasterGotamaaboutthethingmosthelpful

foracceptingtheteachingsasaresultofponderingthem.”

“Examinationofthemeaningismosthelpfulforacceptingtheteachingsasa

resultof pondering them, Bhāradvāja. If one does not examinetheir meaning,

onewillnotaccepttheteachingsasaresultofponderingthem;butbecauseone

examinestheirmeaning,oneacceptstheteachingsasaresultofponderingthem.

That is why examination of the meaning is most helpful for accepting the

teachingsasaresultofponderingthem.”

28. “But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for examination of the

meaning?WeaskMasterGotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforexamination

ofmeaning.”

“Memorizing the teachings is most helpful for examining the meaning,

Bhāradvāja. If one does not memorize a teaching, one will not examine its

meaning;butbecauseonememorizesateaching,oneexaminesitsmeaning.”

29.“Butwhat,MasterGotama,ismosthelpfulformemorizingtheteachings?

We ask Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for memorizing the

teachings.”

“Hearing the Dhamma is most helpful for memorizing the teachings,

Bhāradvāja. If one does not hear the Dhamma, one will not memorize the

teachings; but because one hears the Dhamma, one memorizes the teachings.

ThatiswhyhearingtheDhammaismosthelpfulformemorizingtheteachings.”

30.“Butwhat,MasterGotama,ismosthelpfulforhearingtheDhamma?We

askMasterGotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforhearingtheDhamma.”

“GivingearismosthelpfulforhearingtheDhamma,Bhāradvāja.Ifonedoes

notgiveear,onewillnotheartheDhamma;butbecauseonegivesear,onehears

theDhamma.ThatiswhygivingearismosthelpfulforhearingtheDhamma.”

31.“Butwhat,MasterGotama,ismosthelpfulforgivingear?WeaskMaster

Gotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforgivingear.”

“Payingrespectismosthelpfulforgivingear,Bhāradvāja.Ifonedoesnotpay

respect,onewillnotgiveear;butbecauseonepaysrespect,onegivesear.That

iswhypayingrespectismosthelpfulforgivingear.”

32. “But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for paying respect? We ask

MasterGotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforpayingrespect.”

“Visitingismosthelpfulforpayingrespect,Bhāradvāja.Ifonedoesnotvisita

teacher, onewillnot payrespectto him;butbecauseone visitsateacher, one

paysrespecttohim.Thatiswhyvisitingismosthelpfulforpayingrespect.”

33.“Butwhat, Master Gotama,ismost helpfulforvisiting?We askMaster

Gotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforvisiting.”

“Faithismosthelpfulforvisiting,Bhāradvāja.Iffaithinateacherdoesnot

arise,onewillnotvisithim;butbecausefaithinateacherarises,onevisitshim.

Thatiswhyfaithismosthelpfulforvisiting.”

34. “We asked Master Gotama about the preservation of truth, and Master

Gotamaansweredaboutthepreservationoftruth;weapproveofandacceptthat

answer,andsowearesatisfied.WeaskedMasterGotamaaboutthediscoveryof

truth,andMasterGotamaansweredaboutthediscoveryoftruth;weapproveof

andacceptthatanswer,andsowearesatisfied.WeaskedMasterGotamaabout

thefinalarrivalattruth,andMasterGotamaansweredaboutthefinalarrivalat

truth;weapproveofandacceptthatanswer,andsowearesatisfied.Weasked

Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for the final arrival at truth, and

Master Gotama answered about the thing most helpful for the final arrival at

truth;weapproveofandacceptthatanswer,andsowearesatisfied.Whatever

we asked Master Gotama about, that he has answered us; we approve of and

acceptthatanswer,andsowearesatisfied.Formerly,MasterGotama,weused

tothink:‘Whoarethesebald-headedascetics,thesedarkmenialoffspringofthe

Lord’sfeet,thattheywouldunderstandtheDhamma?’

ButMasterGotamahas

indeed inspired in me love for ascetics, confidence in ascetics, reverence for

ascetics.

35.“Magnificent,MasterGotama!Magnificent,MasterGotama!…[asinText

III,2]...FromtodayletMasterGotamaremembermeasalayfollowerwhohas

gonetohimforrefugeforlife.”

(fromMN95:CaṅkīSutta;II168–77)

IV.TheHappinessVisibleinThisPresentLife

INTRODUCTION

Is it the case, as some scholars hold, that the Buddha’s original message was

exclusivelyoneofworld-transcendingliberation,withlittlerelevanceforpeople

stuckinthe routinesof worldlylife?Did theancient Buddhists believethat it

wasonlyinthemonasterythattherealpracticeoftheDhammabeganandthat

only those who left the world were considered proper receptacles of the

teaching?Didthe Buddha’steachings for thelaity haveno morethana token

significance?Weretheymainlyinjunctionstoacquiremeritbyofferingmaterial

supporttothemonasticorderanditsmemberssothattheycouldbecomemonks

and nuns (preferably monks) in future lives and then get down to the real

practice?

Atcertainperiods,inalmostalltraditions,Buddhistshavelentsupporttothe

assumptionsthatunderliethesequestions.Theyhavespurnedconcernwiththe

present life and dismissed the world as a valley of tears, a deceptive illusion,

convinced that the sign of spiritual maturity is an exclusive focus on

emancipation from the round of birth and death. Monks have sometimes

displayedlittleinterestinshowingthosestillstuckintheworldhowtousethe

wisdomoftheDhammatodealwiththeproblemsofordinarylife.Householders

inturnhaveseenlittlehopeofspiritualprogressintheirownchosenmodeof

life and have thus resigned themselves merely to gaining merit by offering

materialsupporttothemonks.

Whilethe Nikāyas reveal the crownof the Buddha’s teachings to lie in the

path to final release from suffering, it would be a mistake to reduce the

teachings,sodiverseintheoriginalsources,totheirtranscendentpinnacle.We

must again recall the statement that a Buddha arises “for the welfare of the

multitude,forthehappinessofthemultitude…outofcompassionfortheworld,

forthegood,welfare,andhappinessofdevasandhumans”(p.50).Thefunction

ofaBuddhaistodiscover,realize,andproclaimtheDhammainitsfullrange

and depth, and this involves a comprehensive understanding of the varied

applicationsoftheDhammainallitsmultipledimensions.ABuddhanotonly

penetratestothe unconditionedstate of perfectbliss thatlies beyondsaṃsāra,

outsidethepaleofbirth,aging,anddeath;henotonlyproclaimsthepathtofull

enlightenment and final liberation; but he also illuminates the many ways the

Dhamma applies to the complex conditions of human life for people still

immersedintheworld.

TheDhamma,initsbroadestsense,istheimmanent,invariableorderofthe

universe in which truth, lawful regularity, and virtue are inextricably merged.

ThiscosmicDhammaisreflectedinthehumanmindastheaspirationfortruth,

spiritualbeauty,andgoodness;itisexpressedinhumanconductaswholesome

bodily,verbal,andmentalaction.TheDhammahasinstitutionalembodimentsas

wellasexpressionsinthelivesofindividualswholookuponitastheirsourceof

guidanceintheproperconductoflife.Theseembodimentsarebothsecularand

spiritual.BuddhisttraditionseestheresponsibilityforupholdingtheDhammain

the secular domain as falling to the legendary wheel-turning monarch (rājā

cakkavattī).Thewheel-turningmonarchisthebenevolentrulerwhogovernshis

kingdominaccordancewiththehighestethicalnorms(dhammikodhammarājā)

andthereby peacefully unites the world under a reignof universal justice and

prosperity.AsTextIV,1(1)shows,withinthespiritualdomain,theBuddhaisthe

counterpartofthewheel-turningmonarch.Likethelatter,theBuddharelieson

theDhammaandreverestheDhamma,butwhereasthewheel-turningmonarch

reliesupontheDhammaasprincipleofrighteousnesstorulehiskingdom,the

Buddha relies upon the Dhamma as ethical and spiritual norm to teach and

transformhumanbeingsandguidethemtowardproperconductofbody,speech,

and mind. Neither the wheel-turning monarch nor the Buddha creates the

Dhammatheyuphold,yetneithercanperformtheirrespectivefunctionswithout

it;fortheDhammaistheobjective,impersonal,ever-existentprincipleoforder

that serves as the source and standard for their respective policies and

promulgations.

AsthekingoftheDhamma,theBuddhatakesupthetaskofpromotingthe

true good, welfare, and happiness of the world. He does so by teaching the

peopleoftheworldhowtoliveinaccordancewiththeDhammaandbehavein

suchawaythattheycanattainrealizationofthesameliberatingDhammathat

herealizedthroughhisenlightenment.ThePālicommentariesdemonstratethe

broad scope of the Dhamma by distinguishing three types of benefit that the

Buddha’s teaching is intended to promote, graded hierarchically according to

theirrelativemerit:

1.welfareandhappinessdirectlyvisibleinthispresentlife(dị̣hadhamma-

hitasukha ), attained by fulfilling one’s moral commitments and social

responsibilities;

2.welfareandhappinesspertainingtothenextlife(sampar̄yikahitasukha),

attainedbyengaginginmeritoriousdeeds;

3.theultimategoodorsupremegoal(paramattha),Nibbāna,finalrelease

from the cycle of rebirths, attained by developing the Noble Eightfold

Path.

While many Western writers on Early Buddhism have focused on this last

aspect as almost exclusively representing the Buddha’s original teaching, a

balancedpresentationshouldgiveconsiderationtoallthreeaspects.Therefore,

inthischapterandthosetofollow,wewillbeexploringtextsfromtheNikāyas

thatillustrateeachofthesethreefacetsoftheDhamma.

ThepresentchapterincludesavarietyoftextsontheBuddha’steachingsthat

pertain to the happiness directly visible in this present life. The most

comprehensive Nikāya text in this genre is the Sigālaka Sutta (DN 31, also

knownastheSiṅgalovādaSutta),sometimescalled“TheLayperson’sCodeof

Discipline.” The heart of this sutta is the section on “worshipping the six

directions”—TextIV,1(2)—inwhich the Buddha freely reinterprets an ancient

Indian ritual, infusing it with a new ethical meaning. The practice of

“worshippingthesixdirections,”asexplainedbytheBuddha,presupposesthat

society is sustained by a network of interlocking relationships that bring

coherencetothesocialorderwhenitsmembersfulfilltheirreciprocaldutiesand

responsibilitiesinaspiritofkindness,sympathy,andgoodwill.Thesixbasic

social relationships that the Buddha draws upon to fill out his metaphor are:

parents and children, teacher and pupils, husband and wife, friend and friend,

employerandworkers,layfollowerandreligiousguides.Eachisconsideredone

ofthesixdirectionsinrelationtoitscounterpart.ForayoungmanlikeSigālaka,

hisparentsaretheeast,histeachersthesouth,hiswifeandchildrenthewest,his

friendsthenorth,hisworkersthenadir,andreligiousguidesthezenith.Withhis

customarysenseofsystematicconcision,theBuddhaascribestoeachmemberof

each pair five obligations with respect to his or her counterpart; when each

memberfulfillstheseobligations,thecorresponding“direction”comestobe“at

peaceandfreefromfear.”“Thus,forEarlyBuddhism,thesocialstabilityand

securitythatcontributetohumanhappinessaremosteffectivelyachievedwhen

everymemberofsocietyfulfillsthevariousdutiesthatbefallthemasdetermined

by their social relationships. Each person rises above the demands of narrow

self-interest and develops a sincere, large-hearted concern for the welfare of

othersandthegreatergoodofthewhole.”

FromthisgeneralcodeoflayBuddhistethics,weturntotextsthatoffermore

specificpointsofadvice,beginningwithaselectionofsuttason“TheFamily.”

Thishasseparatesectionson“ParentsandChildren”(IV,2(1))and“Husbands

andWives”(IV,2(2)).InkeepingwiththenormsofIndiansociety—infact,of

virtuallyalltraditionalagrariansocieties—theBuddharegardsthefamilyasthe

basicunitofsocialintegrationandacculturation.Itisespeciallytheclose,loving

relationshipbetween parents and children that fosters the virtues and sense of

humane responsibility essential to a cohesive social order. Within the family,

these values are transmitted from one generation to the next, and thus a

harmonious society is highly dependent on harmonious relations between

parentsandchildren.TheBuddhaemphasizesfilialpiety—TextIV,2(1)(a)—and

thegratitudeofchildrentotheirparents,adebttheycanadequatelyrepayonly

byestablishingtheirparentsintheproperDhamma—TextIV,2(1)(b).

Wholesomerelations between parents and childrendepend in turn upon the

mutual affection and respect of husband and wife, and thus the Buddha also

offersguidelinesforproperrelationshipsbetweenmarriedcouples.Theseagain

emphasize a common commitment to ethical conduct and spiritual ideals. Of

specialinteresttous,atatimewhenmanymarriagesendsosoonindivorce,is

the Buddha’s advice to the loving couple Nakulapitā and Nakulamātā—Text

IV,2(2)(b)—onhowthelovebetweenahusbandandhiswifecanbesustainedso

stronglythattheycanbereunitedintheirfuturelives.Thisdiscoursealsoshows

thatfarfromdemandingthathislaydisciplesspurnthedesiresoftheworld,the

Buddhawasreadytoshowthosestillundertheswayofworldlydesirehowto

obtaintheobjectsoftheirdesire.Theonerequirementhelaiddownwasthatthe

fulfillmentofdesireberegulatedbyethicalprinciples.

Nextcomeanumberoftextsdealingwithdifferentaspectsofhouseholdlife

unitedbyanemphasisonrightlivelihood.TwocharacteristicsoftheBuddha’s

injunctions to his lay followers regarding the pursuit of mundane happiness

standoutfromthesetexts.

First,inseeking“thegoodvisibleinthispresentlife,”thelayfollowershould

consistentlyadheretoprinciplesofrightconduct,especiallytothefiveprecepts

and the rules of right livelihood. Thus, for example, he stipulates that wealth

must be “acquired by energetic striving … righteous wealth righteously

gained”—Text IV,3. Again, he asks his lay followers to use the wealth they

obtain not only to gratify themselves but also to benefit their dependents and

others who live on charity, particularly virtuous ascetics and brahmins—Text

IV,4(2).

Second, the lay follower should not rest content with the mere pursuit of

temporal well-being and happiness but should also seek the well-being and

happiness pertaining to the future life. This is to be done by fostering those

qualitiesthatleadtoahappyrebirthandtheattainmentofNibbāna.Accordingto

TextsIV,3andIV,5,theprincipalvirtuesalayfollowershouldpossess,leading

to future welfare, are: (1) faith (in the Buddha as the Enlightened One), (2)

moraldiscipline(asunbrokenobservanceofthefiveprecepts),(3)generosity(as

applicationtocharity,giving,andsharing),and(4)wisdom(asinsightintothe

arising and passing away of phenomena). For Early Buddhism, the ideal

householderisnotmerelyadevoutsupporterofthemonasticorderbutanoble

person who has attained at least the first of the four stages of realization, the

fruitionofstream-entry(sotāpatti).

Finally,withsection6,wecometoaselectionoftextson“theCommunity.”I

usethiswordtoreferbroadlytoboththeSaṅgha,themonasticorder,andthe

civilsocietyinwhichanybranchofthemonasticordermustberooted.Fromthe

Nikāyas,itis clear thatwhilethe Buddhaprincipallyaimedat guidingpeople

towardmoralandspiritualprogress,hewasfullyawarethattheircapacityfor

moral and spiritual development depends upon the material conditions of the

society in which they live. He acutely realized that when peopleare mired in

povertyandoppressedbyhungerandwant,theywillfindithardtoholdtoa

pathofmoralrectitude.Thesheerpainofhunger,andtheneedtowardoffthe

elementsandprovidefortheirfamilies,willcompelthemtostooptotypesof

behaviortheywouldavoidifthey couldobtainfairemploymentandadequate

remuneration for their services. Thus he saw that the provision of economic

justiceisintegraltosocialharmonyandpoliticalstability.

The first two texts included here prescribe two sets of guidelines for the

monastic order. Both are excerpts from a long discourse the Buddha spoke

shortly after the death of Mahāvīra, the leader of the Jains.According to the

Nikāyas, following their leader’s death, the Jain monastic order was already

beginning to split up, and the Buddha must have felt compelled to lay down

guidelinestoprotecthisownorderfromsharingthesamefateafterhispassing.

TextIV,6(1)enumeratessixqualitiesthatleadtoquarrelsanddisputes,which

themonksshouldbewaryofandstrivetoeliminatewhentheydiscoverthem

withinthemselves.Althoughtheseguidelinesarelaiddownforthemonks,they

caneasilybegivenawiderapplicationtoanyorganization,secularorreligious,

foritisthesamesixfactorsthatlieatthebottomofallconflicts.Thepositive

counterparttothissetofcautionaryguidelinesisTextIV,6(2),whichenumerates

“sixprinciplesofcordiality”thatleadtolove,respect,andharmonyamongthe

membersofthecommunity.Again,withappropriateadaptation,theseprinciples

—loving acts of body, speech, and mind; sharing of possessions; common

observance of precepts; and unity of views—can be given an extended

application beyond a monastic order to the wider community. The same sutta

providesmoredetailedguidelinesforpreservingharmonyinthemonasticorder

aftertheBuddha’sdeath,butthesedealwithaspectsofmonasticdisciplinetoo

specializedforthepresentanthology.

TextIV,6(3),alongexcerptfromtheAssalāyanaSutta,capturestheBuddha

indebatewithaprecociousbrahminpunditaboutthebrahmins’claimsonbehalf

ofthecastesystem.IntheBuddha’sagethecastesystemwasonlybeginningto

takeshapeinnortheastIndiaandhadnotyetspawnedthecountlesssubdivisions

andrigidregulationsthatweretomanacleIndiansocietythroughthecenturies.

Societywasdividedintofourbroadsocialclasses:thebrahmins,whoperformed

thepriestlyfunctionsprescribedintheVedas;thekhattiyas,thenobles,warriors,

and administrators; the vessas, the merchants and agriculturalists; and the

suddas,themenialsandserfs.Therewerealsothoseoutsidethepaleofthefour

main classes, who were regarded as even lower than the suddas. From the

Nikāyas it appears that the brahmins, while vested with authority in religious

matters,hadnot yetattained theunchallengeablehegemony theywere togain

aftertheappearanceofsuchworksastheLawsofManu,whichlaiddownthe

fixedrulesofthecastesystem.Theyhad,however,alreadyembarkedontheir

drivefordominationovertherestofIndiansocietyanddidsobypropagating

thethesisthatbrahminsarethehighestcaste,thedivinelyblessedoffspringof

Brahmāwhoarealonecapableofpurification.

Contrary to certain popular notions, the Buddha did not agitate for the

abolitionoftheIndianclasssystemandattempttoestablishaclass-lesssociety.

Within the Saṅgha, however, all caste distinctions were abrogated from the

momentofordination.Peoplefromanyofthefoursocialclasseswhowentforth

undertheBuddharenouncedtheirclasstitlesandprerogatives,becomingknown

simplyasdisciplesoftheSakyanson(thatis,oftheBuddha,whowasfromthe

Sakyanclan).WhenevertheBuddhaandhisdisciplesconfrontedthebrahmins’

claimtosuperiority,theyarguedvigorouslyagainstthem.Asourtextshows,the

Buddha maintained that all such claims were groundless. Purification, he

contended, was the result of conduct, not of birth, and was thus accessible to

those of all four castes. The Buddha even stripped the term “brahmin” of its

hereditary accretions, and hearkening back to its original connotation of holy

man,definedthetruebrahminasthearahant(seeMN98,notincludedinthis

anthology).

Thenexttwoselectionssuggestguidelinesforpoliticaladministration.During

theBuddha’stimetwodistinctformsofgovernmentprevailedamongthestates

ofnorthernIndiainwhichtheBuddhamovedandtaught,monarchicalkingdoms

andtribalrepublics.Asaspiritualteacher,theBuddhadidnotpreferonetypeof

governmenttotheother,nordidheactivelyinterfereinaffairsofstate.Buthis

followers included leaders from both types of state, and thus he occasionally

offeredthemguidanceintendedtoensurethattheywouldgoverntheirrealmsin

accordancewithethicalnorms.

The opening scene of the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, the narrative of the

Buddha’s last days—Text IV,6(4)—gives us a glimpse into this tumultuous

phase of Indian history when Magadha, the rising star among the northern

monarchies, was expanding in influence and absorbing its neighboring tribal

republics.In thepassage reproducedhere wesee KingAjātasattu, theruler of

Magadha, setting his sights on the Vajjian confederacy, the largest and best

organized of the tribal republics. When the sutta opens, he sends his chief

ministerto inquire from the Buddhawhether he has any chance of success in

waging war against the Vajjians. The Buddha questions Ānanda about seven

conditionsofsocialstabilitythathehadearliertaughttheVajjians,concluding

that“aslongastheykeeptothesesevenprinciples,aslongastheseprinciples

remaininforce,theVajjiansmaybeexpectedtoprosperandnotdecline.”He

then convenes a meeting of the monks and teaches them seven analogous

principlesofstabilityapplicabletothemonasticorder.

Since the eventual triumph of the monarchical type of government seemed

inevitable,theBuddhasoughttoestablishamodelofkingshipthatcouldcurb

thearbitraryexerciseofpowerandsubordinatethekingtoahigherauthority.He

didsobysettinguptheidealofthe“wheel-turningmonarch,”therighteousking

whorulesincompliancewiththeDhamma,theimpersonallawofrighteousness

(seeTextIV,1(1)).TheDhammathatheobeysistheethicalbasisforhisrule.

Symbolizedbythesacred wheel-treasure,theDhamma enables himtosubdue

withoutforceallthenationsoftheworldandestablishauniversalreignofpeace

andvirtuebasedonobservanceofthefiveprecepts—seeTextIV,6(5).

Thewheel-turningmonarchrulesforthewelfareandhappinessofhissubjects

and extends protection to all within his realm, even to the birds and beasts.

Amonghisdutiesistopreventcrimefromeruptinginhiskingdom,andtokeep

thekingdomsafe fromcrime he mustgive wealthtothose inneed, forinthe

viewoftheNikāyaspovertyisthebreedinggroundofcriminality.Thistheme,

mentioned among the duties of the wheel-turning monarch in TextIV,6(5), is

elaboratedinTextIV,6(6).Wehereseeawisechaplainadviseakingthatthe

correct way to end the plague of theft and brigandage in his realm is not by

imposingharsher punishmentsand stricterlaw enforcement,but by giving the

citizens the means to earn their living. Once the people enjoy a satisfactory

standardofliving,theywillloseallinterestinharmingothers,andthecountry

willenjoypeaceandtranquillity.

IV.THEHAPPINESSVISIBLEINTHISPRESENT

LIFE

1.UPHOLDINGTHEDHAMMAINSOCIETY

(1)TheKingoftheDhamma

The Blessed One said: “Monks, even a wheel-turning monarch, a just and

righteousking,doesnotgovernhisrealmwithoutaco-regent.”

Whenhehadspoken,acertainmonkaddressedtheBlessedOnethus:“But

who,venerablesir,istheco-regentofthewheel-turningmonarch,thejustand

righteousking?”

“It is the Dhamma, the law of righteousness, O monk,” replied the Blessed

One.

“Inthiscase,thewheel-turningmonarch,thejustandrighteousking,relying

onthe Dhamma, honoringthe Dhamma, esteemingand respecting it, with the

Dhamma as his standard, banner, and sovereign, provides lawful protection,

shelter, and safety for his own dependents. He provides lawful protection,

shelter, and safety for the khattiyas attending on him; for his army, for the

brahmins and householders, for the inhabitants of town and countryside, for

asceticsandbrahmins,forthebeastsandbirds.

“A wheel-turning monarch, a just and righteous king, who thus provides

lawfulprotection,shelter,andsafetyfor all, istheonewho rules byDhamma

only.Andthatrulecannotbeoverthrownbyanyhostilehumanbeing.

“Evenso,Omonk,theTathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne,

thejustandrighteouskingoftheDhamma,relyingontheDhamma,honoring

the Dhamma, esteeming and respecting it, with the Dhamma as his standard,

banner,andsovereign,provideslawfulprotection,shelter,andsafetyinregardto

actionbybody,speech,andmind.[Heteachesthus:]‘Suchbodilyactionshould

beundertakenandsuchshouldnotbeundertaken.Suchverbalactionshouldbe

undertaken and such should not be undertaken. Such mental action should be

undertakenandsuchshouldnotbeundertaken.’

“TheTathāgata,theArahant,theFullyEnlightenedOne,thejustandrighteous

kingoftheDhamma,whothusprovideslawfulprotection,shelter,andsafetyin

regard to action by body, speech, and mind, is the one who turns the

incomparablewheeloftheDhammainaccordancewiththeDhammaonly.And

thatwheeloftheDhammacannotbeturnedbackbyanyasceticorbrahmin,by

anydevaorMāraorBrahmāorbyanyoneintheworld.”

(AN3:14;I109–10)

(2)WorshippingtheSixDirections

1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at

Rājagaha,attheBambooGrove,intheSquirrels’Sanctuary.ThenSigālakathe

householder’s son,havinggot upearlyand gone outof Rājagaha, waspaying

homage, with wet clothes and hair and with joined palms, to the different

directions:totheeast,thesouth,thewest,thenorth,thenadir,andthezenith.

2. And the Blessed One, having risen early and dressed, took his robe and

bowlandwenttoRājagahaforalms.AndseeingSigālakapayinghomagetothe

differentdirections,hesaid:“Householder’sson,whyhaveyougotupearlyto

payhomagetothedifferentdirections?”

“Venerablesir,myfather,whenhewasdying,toldmetodoso.Andso,outof

respectformyfather’swords,whichIrevere,honor,andholdsacred,Ihavegot

upearlytopayhomageinthiswaytothesixdirections.”

“But,householder’s son,that is notthe right way to pay homage tothe six

directionsaccordingtotheNobleOne’sdiscipline.”

“Well, venerable sir, how should one pay homage to the six directions

accordingtotheNobleOne’sdiscipline?ItwouldbegoodiftheBlessedOne

wouldteachmetheproperwaytopayhomagetothesixdirectionsaccordingto

theNobleOne’sdiscipline.”

“Thenlistenandattendcarefully,householder’sson,Iwillspeak.”

“Yes,venerablesir,”Sigālakasaid.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:...

27. “And how, householder’s son, does the noble disciple protect the six

directions? These six things are to be regarded as the six directions. The east

denotesmotherandfather.Thesouth denotesteachers.Thewestdenoteswife

and children. The north denotes friends and companions. The nadir denotes

servants,workers,andhelpers.Thezenithdenotesasceticsandbrahmins.

28. “There are five ways in which a son should ministerto his mother and

father as the eastern direction. [He should think:] ‘Having been supported by

them,Iwillsupportthem.Iwillperformtheirdutiesforthem.Iwillkeepupthe

familytradition.Iwillbeworthyofmyheritage.Aftermyparents’deathsIwill

distributegiftsontheirbehalf.’Andtherearefivewaysinwhichtheparents,so

ministered to by their son as the eastern direction, will reciprocate: they will

restrainhim from evil, support himin doing good, teach him someskill, find

himasuitablewife,and,induetime,handoverhisinheritancetohim.Inthis

waytheeasterndirectioniscovered,makingitatpeaceandfreefromfear.

29.“Therearefivewaysinwhichpupilsshouldministertotheirteachersas

the southern direction: by rising to greet them, by waiting on them, by being

attentive,byservingthem,bymasteringtheskillstheyteach.Andtherearefive

waysinwhichtheirteachers,thusministeredtobytheirpupilsasthesouthern

direction,willreciprocate:theywillgivethoroughinstruction,makesurethey

have grasped what they should have duly grasped, give them a thorough

grounding in all skills, recommend them to their friends and colleagues, and

providethemwithsecurityinalldirections.Inthiswaythesoutherndirectionis

covered,makingitatpeaceandfreefromfear.

30.“Therearefivewaysinwhichahusbandshouldministertohiswifeasthe

western direction: by honoring her, by not disparaging her, by not being

unfaithfultoher,bygivingauthoritytoher,byprovidingherwithadornments.

Andtherearefivewaysinwhichawife,thusministeredtobyherhusbandas

the western direction, will reciprocate: by properly organizing her work, by

beingkindtotheservants,bynotbeingunfaithful,byprotectingstores,andby

beingskillfulanddiligentinallshehastodo.Inthiswaythewesterndirection

iscovered,makingitatpeaceandfreefromfear.

31.“Therearefivewaysinwhichamanshouldministertohisfriendsand

companionsasthenortherndirection:bygifts,bykindlywords,bylookingafter

theirwelfare,bytreatingthemlikehimself,andbykeepinghisword.Andthere

arefivewaysinwhichfriendsandcompanions,thusministeredtobyamanas

the northern direction, will reciprocate: by looking after him when he is

inattentive, by looking after his property when he is inattentive, by being a

refuge when he is afraid, by not deserting him when he is in trouble, and by

showingconcernforhischildren.Inthiswaythenortherndirectioniscovered,

makingitatpeaceandfreefromfear.

32.“Therearefivewaysinwhichamastershouldministertohisservantsand

workers as the nadir: by arranging their work according to their strength, by

supplyingthemwithfoodandwages,bylookingafterthemwhentheyareill,by

sharingspecialdelicacieswiththem,andbylettingthemoffworkattheright

time.Andtherearefivewaysinwhichservantsandworkers,thusministeredto

bytheirmasterasthenadir,willreciprocate:theywillgetupbeforehim,goto

bed after him, take only what they are given, do their work properly, and be

bearersofhispraiseandgoodrepute.Inthiswaythenadiriscovered,makingit

atpeaceandfreefromfear.

33. “There are five ways in which a man should minister to ascetics and

brahmins as the zenith: by kindness in bodily deed, speech, and thought, by

keeping open house for them, and by supplying their bodily needs. And the

asceticsandbrahmins,thusministeredtobyhimasthezenith,willreciprocate

in five ways: they will restrain him from evil, encourage him to do good, be

benevolentlycompassionatetowardhim,teachhimwhathehasnotheard,and

pointouttohimthewaytoheaven.Inthiswaythezenithiscovered,makingit

atpeaceandfreefromfear.”

(fromDN31:SigālakaSutta;III180–81,187–91)

2.THEFAMILY

(1)ParentsandChildren

(a)RespectforParents

“Monks, those families dwell with Brahmā where at home the parents are

respectedbytheirchildren.Thosefamiliesdwellwiththeancientteacherswhere

athometheparentsarerespectedbytheirchildren.Thosefamiliesdwellwith

the ancient deities where at home the parents are respected by the children.

Thosefamiliesdwellwiththeholyoneswhereathometheparentsarerespected

bytheirchildren.

“‘Brahmā,’monks,isatermforfatherandmother.‘Theancientteachers’isa

termforfatherandmother.‘Theancientdeities’isatermforfatherandmother.

‘Theholyones’isatermforfatherandmother.Andwhy?Parentsareofgreat

helptotheirchildren;theybringthemup,feedthem,andshowthemtheworld.”

(AN4:63;II70)

(b)RepayingOne’sParents

“Monks,I declare that there aretwo persons onecan never repay. Whattwo?

One’smotherandfather.

“Evenifoneshouldcarryaboutone’smotherononeshoulderandone’sfather

ontheother,andwhiledoingsoshouldliveahundredyears,reachtheageofa

hundredyears;andifoneshouldattendtothembyanointingthemwithbalms,

bymassaging,bathing,andrubbingtheirlimbs,andtheyshouldevenvoidtheir

excrementsthere—evenbythatwouldonenotdoenoughforone’sparents,nor

would one repay them. Even if one were to establish one’s parents as the

supremelordsandrulersoverthisearthsorichintheseventreasures,onewould

notdoenoughforthem,norwouldonerepaythem.Forwhatreason?Parentsare

ofgreathelptotheirchildren;theybringthemup,feedthem,andshowthemthe

world.

“But, monks, one who encourages his unbelieving parents, settles and

establishes them in faith; who encourages his immoral parents, settles and

establishestheminmoraldiscipline;whoencourageshisstingyparents,settles

andestablishesthemingenerosity;whoencourageshisignorantparents,settles

and establishes them in wisdom—such a one, monks, does enough for his

parents:herepaysthemandmorethanrepaysthemforwhattheyhavedone.”

(AN2:iv,2;I61–62)

(2)HusbandsandWives

(a)DifferentKindsofMarriages

On one occasion the Blessed One was traveling along the highway between

Madhurā and Verañjā, and a number of householders and their wives were

travelingalongthesameroad.ThentheBlessedOnelefttheroadandsatdown

onaseatatthefootofatree.ThehouseholdersandtheirwivessawtheBlessed

One sitting there and approached him. Having paid homage to him, they sat

downtooneside,andtheBlessedOnethensaidtothem:

“Householders,therearethesefourkindsofmarriages.Whatfour?Awretch

livestogetherwithawretch;awretchlivestogetherwithagoddess;agodlives

togetherwithawretch;agodlivestogetherwithagoddess.

“Andhowdoesawretchlivetogetherwithawretch?Here,householders,the

husband is one who destroys life, takes what is not given, engages in sexual

misconduct, speaks falsely, and indulges in wines, liquor, and intoxicants, the

basisfornegligence;heisimmoral,ofbadcharacter;hedwellsathomewitha

heart obsessed by the stain of stinginess; he abuses and reviles ascetics and

brahmins.Andhiswifeisexactlythesameinallrespects.Itisinsuchawaythat

awretchlivestogetherwithawretch.

“Andhowdoesawretchlivetogetherwithagoddess?Here,householders,the

husband is one who destroys life … who abuses and reviles ascetics and

brahmins.Buthiswifeisonewhoabstainsfromthedestructionoflife...from

wines,liquor,andintoxicants;sheisvirtuous,ofgoodcharacter;shedwellsat

homewithaheartfreefromthestainofstinginess;shedoesnotabuseorrevile

ascetics and brahmins. It is in such a way that a wretch lives together with a

goddess.

“And how does a god live together with a wretch? Here, householders, the

husbandisonewhoabstainsfromthedestructionoflife...whodoesnotabuse

or revile ascetics and brahmins. But his wife is one who destroys life ... who

abuses and reviles ascetics and brahmins. It is in such a way that a god lives

togetherwithawretch.

“Andhowdoesagodlivetogetherwithagoddess?Here,householders,the

husbandisonewhoabstainsfromthedestructionoflife…fromwines,liquor,

andintoxicants;heisvirtuous,ofgoodcharacter;hedwellsathomewithaheart

free from the stain of stinginess; he does not abuse or revile ascetics and

brahmins.Andhiswifeisexactlythesameinallrespects.Itisinsuchawaythat

agodlivestogetherwithagoddess.

“These,householders,arethefourkindsofmarriages.”

(AN4:53;II57–59)

(b)HowtoBeUnitedinFutureLives

OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingamongtheBhaggapeople,near

Suṃsumāragiri, in the Deer Park of the Bhesakalā Grove. One morning the

BlessedOnedressed,tookhisupperrobeandbowl,andwenttothedwellingof

the householder Nakulapitā.

 Having arrived there, he sat down on the seat

prepared for him. Then the householder Nakulapitā and the housewife

NakulamātāapproachedtheBlessedOneand,afterpayinghomagetohim,sat

down to one side. So seated, the householder Nakulapitā said to the Blessed

One:

“Venerablesir,eversincetheyounghousewifeNakulamātāwasbroughthome

tomewhenItoowasstillyoung,Iamnotawareofhavingwrongedherevenin

mythoughts,stilllessinmydeeds.Ourwishistobeinoneanother’ssightso

longasthislifelastsandinthefuturelifeaswell.”

ThenNakulamātāthehousewifeaddressedtheBlessedOnethus:“Venerable

sir,eversinceIwastakentothehomeofmyyounghusbandNakulapitā,while

beingayounggirlmyself,Iamnotawareofhavingwrongedhimeveninmy

thoughts,stilllessinmydeeds.Ourwishistobeinoneanother’ssightsolong

asthislifelastsandinthefuturelifeaswell.”

ThentheBlessedOnespokethus:“If,householders,bothwifeandhusband

wishtobeinoneanother’ssightsolongasthislifelastsandinthefuturelifeas

well, they should have the same faith, the same moral discipline, the same

generosity,thesamewisdom;thentheywillbeinoneanother’ssightsolongas

thislifelastsandinthefuturelifeaswell.”

Whenbotharefaithfulandgenerous,

Self-restrained,ofrighteousliving,

Theycometogetherashusbandandwife

Fullofloveforeachother.



Manyblessingscometheirway,

Theydwelltogetherinhappiness,

Theirenemiesareleftdejected,

Whenbothareequalinvirtue.

HavinglivedbyDhammainthisworld,

Thesameinvirtueandobservance,

Theyrejoiceafterdeathinthedeva-world,

Enjoyingabundanthappiness.

(AN4:55;II61–62)

(c)SevenKindsofWives

On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Sāvatthī in Jeta’s Grove,

Anāthapiṇḍika’s monastery. In the morning the Blessed One dressed, took his

bowlandrobe,andwenttoAnāthapiṇḍika’shouse,wherehesatdowninaseat

preparedforhim.Onthatoccasionpeopleinthehouseweremakinganuproar

andaracket.ThehouseholderAnāthapiṇḍikaapproachedtheBlessedOne,paid

homagetohim,andsatdowntooneside.

TheBlessedOnethensaidtohim:

“Whyarepeopleinyourhousemakingthisuproarandracket,householder?One

wouldthinktheywerefishermenmakingahauloffish.”

“That,venerablesir,isourdaughter-in-lawSujātā.Sheisrichandhasbeen

broughtherefromarichfamily.Shedoesnotobeyherfather-in-lawandmother-

in-law,norherhusband.Shedoesnotevenhonor,respect,esteem,andvenerate

theBlessedOne.”

Then the Blessed One called the daughter-in-law Sujātā, saying, “Come,

Sujātā.”

“Yes, venerable sir,” she replied, and she went to the Blessed One, paid

homage to him, and sat down to one side. The Blessed One then said to her:

“Therearethesesevenkindsofwives,Sujātā.Whatseven?Onelikeaslayer,

onelikeathief,onelikeatyrant,onelikeamother,onelikeasister,onelikea

friend,andonelikeahandmaid.Thesearethesevenkindsofwives.Nowwhich

ofthesesevenareyou?”

“I do not understand in detail the meaning of the Blessed One’s brief

statement.Itwouldbegood,venerablesir,iftheBlessedOnewouldteachme

theDhammainsuchawaythatImightunderstandthemeaningindetail.”

“Thenlisten,Sujātā,andattendcarefully.Iwillspeak.”

“Yes,venerablesir,”Sujātāreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:

“Withhatefulmind,coldandheartless,

Lustingforothers,despisingherhusband;

Whoseekstokilltheonewhoboughther—

Suchawifeiscalledaslayer.



“Whenherhusbandacquireswealth

Byhiscraftortradeorfarmwork,

Shetriestofilchalittleforherself—

Suchawifeiscalledathief.



“Theslothfulglutton,bentonidling,

Harsh,fierce,roughinspeech,

Awomanwhobulliesherownsupporter—

Suchawifeiscalledatyrant.



“Onewhoisalwayshelpfulandkind,

Whoguardsherhusbandasamotherherson,

Whocarefullyprotectsthewealthheearns—

Suchawifeiscalledamother.



“Shewhoholdsherhusbandinhighregard

Asyoungersisterholdstheelderborn,

Whohumblysubmitstoherhusband’swill—

Suchawifeiscalledasister.



“Onewhorejoicesatherhusband’ssight

Asonefriendmightwelcomeanother,

Wellraised,virtuous,devoted—

Suchawifeiscalledafriend.



“Onewithoutanger,afraidofpunishment,

Whobearswithherhusbandfreeofhate,

Whohumblysubmitstoherhusband’swill—

Suchawifeiscalledahandmaid.



“Thetypesofwivesherecalledaslayer,

Athief,andthewifelikeatyrant,

Thesekindsofwives,withthebody’sbreakup,

Willbereborndeepinhell.



“Butwiveslikemother,sister,friend,

Andthewifecalledahandmaid,

Steadyinvirtue,longrestrained,

Withthebody’sbreakupgotoheaven.

“These,Sujātā,arethesevenkindsofwives.Nowwhichoftheseareyou?”

“Beginningtoday,venerablesir,youshouldconsidermeawifewhoislikea

handmaid.”

(AN7:59;IV91–94)

3.PRESENTWELFARE,FUTUREWELFARE

OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingamongtheKoliyanswherethere

was a market town of the Koliyans named Kakkarapatta. Then the Koliyan

familymanDīghajānuapproachedtheBlessedOne,paidhomagetohim,andsat

downtooneside.Soseated,hesaidtotheBlessedOne:

“Venerable sir, we are laypeople who enjoy sensual pleasures, dwelling at

home in a bed crowded with children, enjoying fine sandalwood, wearing

garlands,scents,andunguents,acceptinggoldandsilver.LettheBlessedOne

teachthe Dhammato us in a waythat willlead toour welfare andhappiness

bothinthepresentlifeandinthefuturelifeaswell.”

“Thereare,Byagghapajja,fourthingsthatleadtothewelfareandhappinessof

a family man in this very life. What four? The accomplishment of persistent

effort,theaccomplishmentofprotection,goodfriendship,andbalancedliving.

“And what is the accomplishment of persistent effort? Here, Byagghapajja,

whatevermaybethemeansbywhichafamilymanearnshisliving—whetherby

farming,trade,cattleraising,archeryorcivilservice,orbysomeothercraft—he

isskillfulanddiligent;heinvestigatestheappropriatemeans,andisabletoact

andarrangeeverythingproperly.Thisiscalledtheaccomplishmentofpersistent

effort.

“Andwhatistheaccomplishmentofprotection?Here,Byagghapajja,afamily

mansetsupprotectionandguardoverthewealthacquiredbyenergeticstriving,

amassedbythestrengthofhisarms,earnedbythesweatofhisbrow,righteous

wealthrighteouslygained,thinking:‘HowcanIpreventkingsandbanditsfrom

takingthisaway,firefromburningit,floodsfromsweepingitoff,andunloved

heirsfromtakingit?’Thisiscalledtheaccomplishmentofprotection.

“And what is good friendship? Here, Byagghapajja, in whatever village or

town a family man dwells, he associates with householders or their sons,

whetheryoung or old, who are of mature virtue, accomplished in faith, moral

discipline, generosity, and wisdom; he converses with them and engages in

discussionswiththem.Heemulatestheminregardtotheiraccomplishmentin

faith,moraldiscipline,generosity,andwisdom.Thisiscalledgoodfriendship.

“Andwhatisbalancedliving?Here,Byagghapajja,afamilymanknowshis

income and expenditures and leads a balanced life, neither extravagant nor

miserly,sothathisincomeexceedshisexpendituresratherthanthereverse.Just

asagoldsmithorhisapprentice,holdingupascale,knows,‘Bysomuchithas

dippeddown,bysomuchithastiltedup,’soafamilymanleadsabalancedlife.

“The wealth thus amassed has four sources of dissipation: womanizing,

drunkenness, gambling, and evil friendship. Just as in the case of a tank with

fourinletsandoutlets,ifoneshouldclosetheinletsandopentheoutlets,and

therewouldnotbeadequate rainfall, adecreaseratherthanan increaseofthe

water could be expected in the tank, so these four things bring about the

dissipationofamassedwealth.

“Similarly, there are four sources for the increase of amassed wealth:

abstinencefromwomanizing,fromdrunkenness,fromgambling,andfromevil

friendship.Justasinthecaseofatankwithfourinletsandoutlets,ifoneshould

openthe inlets and close the outlets, and there would be adequate rainfall, an

increaserather than a decrease of the water could be expected in the tank, so

thesefourthingsbringabouttheincreaseofamassedwealth.

“These four things, Byagghapajja, lead to a family man’s welfare and

happinessinthepresentlife.

“Fourotherthingsleadtoafamilyman’swelfareandhappinessinthefuture

life. What four? Accomplishment in faith, moral discipline, generosity, and

wisdom.

“And how is a family man accomplished in faith? Here, Byagghapajja, a

familymanhasfaith;heplacesfaithintheenlightenmentoftheTathāgata:‘So

the Blessed One is an arahant, perfectly enlightened, accomplished in true

knowledgeandconduct,fortunate,knoweroftheworld,unsurpassedleaderof

persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the

BlessedOne.’Inthiswayafamilymanisaccomplishedinfaith.

“And how is a family man accomplished in moral discipline? Here,

Byagghapajja,afamilymanabstainsfromthedestructionoflife,fromstealing,

from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from wines, liquors, and

intoxicants,thebasisfornegligence.Inthiswayafamilymanisaccomplished

inmoraldiscipline.

“Andhowisafamilymanaccomplishedingenerosity?Here,Byagghapajja,a

familymandwellsathomewithaminddevoidofthestainofstinginess,freely

generous, open-handed, delighting in relinquishment, one devoted to charity,

delightingingivingandsharing.Inthiswayafamilymanisaccomplishedin

generosity.

“Andhowisafamilymanaccomplishedinwisdom?Here,Byagghapajja,a

familymanpossessesthewisdomthatseesintothearisingandpassingawayof

phenomena,thatisnobleandpenetrativeandleadstothecompletedestruction

ofsuffering.Inthiswayafamilymanisaccomplishedinwisdom.

“These four things, Byagghapajja, lead to a family man’s welfare and

happinessinthefuturelife.”

(AN8:54;IV281–85)

4.RIGHTLIVELIHOOD

(1)AvoidingWrongLivelihood

“Thesefivetrades,Omonks,shouldnotbetakenupbyalayfollower:tradingin

weapons,tradinginlivingbeings,tradinginmeat,tradinginintoxicants,trading

inpoison.”

(AN5:177;III208)

(2)TheProperUseofWealth

[TheBlessedOneaddressedthehouseholderAnāthapiṇḍika:]“Withthewealth

acquiredbyenergeticstriving,amassedbythestrengthofhisarms,earnedby

the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth righteously gained, the noble disciple

undertakesfourworthydeeds.Whatfour?

“With the wealth thus gained he makes himself happy and pleased and

properlymaintainshimselfinhappiness;hemakeshisparentshappyandpleased

andproperlymaintainstheminhappiness;hemakeshiswifeandchildren,his

slaves,workers,andservantshappyandpleasedandproperlymaintainsthemin

happiness;hemakeshisfriendsandcolleagueshappyandpleasedandproperly

maintainstheminhappiness.Thisisthefirstcaseofwealthgonetogooduse,

fruitfullyappliedandusedforaworthycause.

“Further,householder,withthewealththusgainedthenobledisciplemakes

provisionsagainstthelossesthatmightariseonaccountoffireandfloods,kings

andbanditsandunlovedheirs;hemakeshimselfsecureagainstthem.Thisisthe

secondcaseofwealthgonetogooduse.…

“Further,householder,withthewealththusgainedthenobledisciplemakes

thefivekindsofofferings:torelatives,guests,ancestors,theking,andthedevas.

Thisisthethirdcaseofwealthgonetogooduse.…

“Further, householder, with the wealth thus gained the noble disciple

establishesaloftyofferingofalmstothoseasceticsandbrahminswhorefrain

fromvanityandnegligence,whoaresettledinpatienceandgentleness,whoare

devotedtotamingthemselves,tocalmingthemselves,andtoattainingNibbāna

—anofferingthatisheavenly,resultinginhappiness,conducivetoheaven.This

isthefourthcaseofwealthgonetogooduse,fruitfullyemployedandusedfora

worthycause.

“These, householder, are the four worthy deeds that the noble disciple

undertakes with the wealth acquired by energetic striving, amassed by the

strength of his arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth

righteouslygained.

“Foranyonewhosewealthisexpendedonotherthingsapartfromthesefour

worthydeeds,thatwealthissaidtohavegonetowaste,tohavebeensquandered

and used frivolously. But for anyone whose wealth is expended on these four

worthy deeds, that wealth is said to have gone to good use, to have been

fruitfullyemployedandusedforaworthycause.”

(AN4:61;II65–68)

(3)AFamilyMan’sHappiness

The Blessed One said to the householder Anāthapiṇḍika: “There are,

householder, these four kinds of happiness which may be achieved by a

laypersonwhoenjoyssensualpleasures,dependingontimeandoccasion.What

four?Thehappinessofpossession,thehappinessofenjoyment,thehappinessof

freedomfromdebt,andthehappinessofblamelessness.

“Andwhat,householder,isthehappinessofpossession?Here,afamilyman

possesseswealthacquiredbyenergeticstriving,amassedbythestrengthofhis

arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth righteously gained.

Whenhethinks,‘Ipossesswealthacquiredbyenergeticstriving…righteously

gained,’ he experiences happiness and joy. This is called the happiness of

possession.

“Andwhat,householder,isthehappinessofenjoyment?Here,withthewealth

acquiredbyenergeticstriving,amassedbythestrengthofhisarms,earnedby

thesweatofhisbrow,righteouswealthrighteouslygained,afamilymanenjoys

his wealth and does meritorious deeds. When he thinks, ‘With the wealth

acquiredbyenergeticstriving…righteouslygained,Ienjoymywealthanddo

meritorious deeds,’ he experiences happiness and joy. This is called the

happinessofenjoyment.

“And what, householder, is the happiness of freedom from debt? Here, a

family man is not indebted to anyone to any degree, whether small or great.

Whenhethinks,‘Iamnotindebtedtoanyonetoanydegree,whethersmallor

great,’heexperienceshappinessandjoy.Thisiscalledthehappinessoffreedom

fromdebt.

“And what, householder, is the happiness of blamelessness? Here,

householder, a noble disciple is endowed with blameless conduct of body,

speech,andmind. When hethinks, ‘I amendowedwith blamelessconductof

body, speech, and mind,’ he experiences happiness and joy. This is called the

happinessofblamelessness.

“These, householder, are the four kinds of happiness that a layperson who

enjoyssensualpleasuresmayachieve,dependingontimeandoccasion.”

(AN4:62;II69–70)

5.THEWOMANOFTHEHOME

OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingatSāvatthīintheEasternPark,

intheMansionofMigāra’sMother.ThenVisākhā,Migāra’smother,approached

theBlessedOne,paidhomagetohim,andsatdowntooneside.

TheBlessed

Onethensaidtoher:

“Visākhā,whenawomanpossessesfourqualitiessheisheadingforvictoryin

thepresentworldandissuccessfulinthisworld.Whatfour?

“Here,Visākhā,awomaniscapableatherwork;shemanagesherdomestic

help;shebehavesinawaythatisagreeabletoherhusband;andshesafeguards

hisearnings.

“Andhowisawomancapableatherwork?Here,Visākhā,sheisskillfuland

diligent in regard to her husband’s household chores, whether with wool or

cotton; she investigates the appropriate means and is able to act and arrange

everythingproperly.Inthiswayawomaniscapableatherwork.

“Andhowisawomanonewhomanagesthedomestichelp?Here,Visākhā,in

regard to her husband’s domestic helpers—slaves, servants, or workers—she

knows by direct inspection what they have done and failed to do; she knows

whentheyaresickandhealthy;andshedistributestoeachtheappropriateshare

offood.Inthiswayawomanmanagesthedomestichelp.

“Andhowdoesawomanbehaveinawaythatisagreeabletoherhusband?

Here,Visākhā,awomanwouldnotcommitanymisdeedthatherhusbandwould

considerdisagreeable,evenatthecostofherlife.Inthiswayawomanbehaves

inawaythatisagreeabletoherhusband.

“Andhowdoes awomansafeguard her husband’searnings? Here,Visākhā,

whateverherhusbandbringshome—whethermoneyorgrain,silverorgold—

she succeeds in protecting and guarding it, and she is not a spendthrift, thief,

wastrel, or squanderer of his wealth. In this way a woman safeguards her

husband’searnings.

“When,Visākhā,awomanpossessesthesefourqualities,sheisheadingfor

victory in the present world and is successful in this world. But when she

possessesfourotherqualities,sheisheadingforvictoryintheotherworldandis

successfulinregardtotheotherworld.Whatfour?

“Here, Visākhā, a woman is accomplished in faith, moral discipline,

generosity,andwisdom.

“And how is a woman accomplished in faith? Here, Visākhā, a woman has

faith;sheplacesfaithintheenlightenmentoftheTathāgatathus:‘SotheBlessed

One is an arahant ... [as in Text IV,3] … teacher of devas and humans, the

Enlightened One, the Blessed One.’ In this way a woman is accomplished in

faith.

“And how is a woman accomplished in moral discipline? Here, Visākhā, a

woman abstains from the destruction of life, from stealing, from sexual

misconduct, from false speech, and from wines, liquors, and intoxicants, the

basisfornegligence.Inthiswayawomanisaccomplishedinmoraldiscipline.

“Andhowisawomanaccomplishedingenerosity?Here,Visākhā,awoman

dwellsathomewithaminddevoidofthestainofstinginess,freelygenerous,

open-handed,delightinginrelinquishment,onedevotedtocharity,delightingin

givingandsharing.Inthiswayawomanisaccomplishedingenerosity.

“And how is a woman accomplished in wisdom? Here, Visākhā, a woman

possessesthewisdomthatseesintothearisingandpassingawayofphenomena,

thatisnobleandpenetrativeandleadstothecompletedestructionofsuffering.

“Whenawomanpossessesthesefourqualities,sheisheadingforvictoryin

theotherworldandissuccessfulinregardtotheotherworld.”

(AN8:49;IV269–71)

6.THECOMMUNITY

(1)SixRootsofDispute

6.“Thereare,Ānanda,thesesixrootsofdisputes.Whatsix?Here,Ānanda,a

monkisangryandresentful.Suchamonkdwellswithoutrespectanddeference

toward the Teacher, the Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, and he does not fulfill the

training.AmonkwhodwellswithoutrespectanddeferencetowardtheTeacher,

the Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, and who does not fulfill the training, creates a

disputeintheSaṅgha,whichwouldbefortheharmandunhappinessofmany,

fortheloss,harm,andsufferingofdevasandhumans.Nowifyouseeanysuch

rootofdisputeeitherinyourselvesorexternally,youshouldstrivetoabandon

thatsameevilrootofdispute.Andifyoudonotseeanysuchrootofdispute

either in yourselves or externally, you should practice in such a way that that

same evil root of dispute does not erupt in the future. Thus there is the

abandoningofthatevilrootofdispute;thusthereisthenon-eruptionofthatevil

rootofdisputeinthefuture.

7–11.“Again,amonkiscontemptuousandinsolent...enviousandniggardly

…deceitfulandfraudulent…hasevilwishesandwrongview…adherestohis

ownviews,holdsontothemtenaciously,andrelinquishesthemwithdifficulty.

Such a monk dwells without respect and deference toward the Teacher, the

Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, and he does not fulfill the training. A monk who

dwellswithoutrespectanddeferencetowardtheTeacher,theDhamma,andthe

Saṅgha,andwhodoesnot fulfillthetraining,createsadispute intheSaṅgha,

whichwouldbefortheharmandunhappinessofmany,fortheloss,harm,and

sufferingofdevasandhumans.Nowifyouseeanysuchrootofdisputeeitherin

yourselves or externally, you should strive to abandon that same evil root of

dispute.Andifyoudonotseeanysuchrootofdisputeeitherinyourselvesor

externally,youshouldpracticeinsuchawaythatthatsameevilrootofdispute

does not erupt in the future. Thus there isthe abandoning ofthat evil rootof

dispute;thusthereisthenon-eruptionofthatevilrootofdisputeinthefuture.

Thesearethesixrootsofdispute.”

(fromMN104:SāmagāmaSutta;II245–47)

(2)SixPrinciplesofCordiality

21. “Ānanda, there are these six principles of cordiality that create love and

respect,andconducetocohesion,nondispute,concord,andunity.Whatarethe

six?

“Here a monk maintains bodily acts of loving-kindness both in public and in

privatetowardhiscompanionsintheholylife.Thisisaprincipleofcordiality

that creates love and respect, and conduces to cohesion, nondispute, concord,

andunity.

“Again,amonkmaintainsverbalactsofloving-kindnessbothinpublicandin

private toward his companions in the holy life. This too is a principle of

cordialitythatcreatesloveandrespect,andconducesto…unity.

“Again,amonkmaintainsmentalactsofloving-kindnessbothinpublicand

in private toward his companions in the holy life. This too is a principle of

cordialitythatcreatesloveandrespect,andconducesto…unity.

“Again,amonkenjoysthingsincommonwithhisvirtuouscompanionsinthe

holylife;withoutmakingreservations,heshareswiththemanyrighteousgain

thathasbeenobtainedinarighteousway,includingeventhemerecontentofhis

almsbowl.Thistooisaprincipleofcordialitythatcreatesloveandrespect,and

conducesto…unity.

“Again,amonkdwellsbothinpublicandinprivatepossessingincommon

with his companions in the holy life those virtues that are unbroken, untorn,

unblemished, unmottled, freeing, praised by the wise, ungrasped, leading to

concentration.Thistooisaprincipleofcordialitythatcreatesloveandrespect

andconducesto…unity.

“Again,amonkdwellsbothinpublicandinprivatepossessingincommon

withhiscompanionsintheholylifethatviewthatisnobleandemancipating,

andleadstheonewhopracticesinaccordancewithittothecompletedestruction

ofsuffering.Thistoois aprincipleof cordialitythat creates loveand respect,

andconducestocohesion,tonondispute,toconcord,andtounity.

“These are the six principles of cordiality that create love and respect, and

conducetocohesion,tonondispute,toconcord,andtounity.

(fromMN104:SāmagāmaSutta;II250–51)

(3)PurificationIsforAllFourCastes

1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatSāvatthīin

Jeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’sPark.

2. Now at that time five hundred brahmins from diverse provinces were

staying at Sāvatthī for some business or other. Then those brahmins thought:

“ThisasceticGotamadescribespurificationforallthefourcastes.Whoisthere

abletodisputewithhimaboutthisassertion?”

3.NowonthatoccasionabrahminstudentnamedAssalāyanawasstayingat

Sāvatthī.Young,shaven-headed,sixteenyearsold,hewasamasterofthethree

Vedas with their vocabularies, liturgy, phonology, and etymology, and the

histories as a fifth; skilled in philology and grammar, he was fully versed in

naturalphilosophyandinthemarksofagreatman.Sothebrahminsthoughthe

wouldbeabletodebatewiththeBlessedOne.

4. They went to the brahmin studentAssalāyana and said to him: “Master

Assalāyana,thisasceticGotamadescribespurificationforallthefourcastes.Let

Master Assalāyana come and dispute with the ascetic Gotama about this

assertion.”

Whenthiswassaid,thebrahminstudentAssalāyanareplied:“Sirs,theascetic

GotamaisonewhospeakstheDhamma.NowthosewhospeaktheDhammaare

difficult to dispute with. I cannot dispute with the ascetic Gotama about this

assertion.”

Asecondtimeandathirdtimethebrahminsurgedhimtogo.Asecondtime

thebrahminstudentAssalāyanarefused,butafterthethirdurgingheconsented.

5.ThenthebrahminstudentAssalāyanawentwithalargenumberofbrahmins

totheBlessedOneandexchangedgreetingswithhim.Whenthiscourteousand

amiabletalkwasfinished,hesatdownatonesideandsaidtotheBlessedOne:

“MasterGotama,thebrahminssaythus:‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste,those

ofanyothercasteareinferior;brahminsarethefairestcaste,thoseofanyother

castearedark;onlybrahminsarepurified,notnon-brahmins;brahminsaloneare

the sons of Brahmā, the offspring of Brahmā, born of his mouth, born of

Brahmā,createdbyBrahmā,heirsofBrahmā.’WhatdoesMasterGotamasay

aboutthat?”

“Now, Assalāyana, the brahmin women are seen having their periods,

becomingpregnant,givingbirth,andnursing.

Andyetthosebrahmins,though

bornfromthewomb,saythus:‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...brahminsalone

are the sons of Brahmā, the offspring of Brahmā, born of his mouth, born of

Brahmā,createdbyBrahmā,heirsofBrahmā.’”

6. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:

‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...heirsofBrahmā.’”

“Whatdoyouthink,Assalāyana?HaveyouheardthatinYonaandKamboja

andinotheroutlandcountriesthereareonlytwocastes,mastersandslaves,and

thatmastersbecomeslavesandslavesbecomemasters?”

“SoIhaveheard,sir.”

“Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of what

[authority]dothebrahminsinthiscasesaythus:‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste

...heirsofBrahmā’?”

7. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:

‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...heirsofBrahmā.’”

“What do you think, Assalāyana? Suppose a khattiya were to kill living

beings,takewhatisnotgiven,commitsexualmisconduct,speakfalsely,speak

maliciously,speakharshly,gossip,becovetous,haveamindofillwill,andhold

wrongview.Withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,wouldonlyhebereborn

inastateofmisery,inabaddestination,inthelowerworld,inhell—andnota

brahmin?Supposeamerchant…aworkerweretokilllivingbeings…andhold

wrongview.Withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,wouldonlyhebereborn

inastateofmisery,inabaddestination,inthelowerworld,inhell—andnota

brahmin?”

“No,MasterGotama.Whetheritbeakhattiya,orabrahmin,oramerchant,or

a worker—those of all four castes who kill living beings … and hold wrong

view, with thebreakup ofthe body,after death,would bereborn in astate of

misery,inabaddestination,inthelowerworld,inhell.”

“Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of what

[authority]dothebrahminsinthiscasesaythus:‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste

...heirsofBrahmā’?”

8. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:

‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...heirsofBrahmā.’”

“What do you think,Assalāyana? Suppose a brahmin were to abstain from

killing living beings, from taking what is not given, from sexual misconduct,

fromfalsespeech,frommaliciousspeech,fromharshspeech,andfromgossip,

andweretobewithoutcovetousness,tohaveamindwithoutillwill,andtohold

rightview.Withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,wouldonlyheberebornin

agooddestination,intheheavenlyworld—andnotakhattiya,oramerchant,or

aworker?”

“No,MasterGotama.Whetherakhattiya,abrahmin,amerchant,oraworker

—those of all four castes who abstain from killing living beings … and hold

rightview,withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,willbereborninagood

destination,intheheavenlyworld.”

“Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of what

[authority]dothebrahminsinthiscasesaythus:‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste

...heirsofBrahmā’?”

9. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:

‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...heirsofBrahmā.’”

“Whatdoyouthink,Assalāyana?Isonlyabrahmincapableofdevelopinga

mind of loving-kindness toward this region, without hostility and without ill

will,andnotakhattiya,oramerchant,oraworker?”

“No,MasterGotama.Whetherakhattiya,abrahmin,amerchant,oraworker

—thoseofallfourcastesarecapableofdevelopingamindofloving-kindness

towardthisregion,withouthostilityandwithoutillwill.”“Thenonthestrength

ofwhat[argument]orwiththesupportofwhat[authority]dothebrahminsin

thiscasesaythus:‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...heirsofBrahmā’?”

10. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:

‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...heirsofBrahmā.’”

“What do you think, Assalāyana? Is only a brahmin capable of taking a

bathingbrushandbathpowder,goingtotheriver,andwashingoffdustanddirt,

andnotakhattiya,oramerchant,oraworker?”

“No,MasterGotama.Whetherakhattiya,abrahmin,amerchant,oraworker

—thoseofallfourcastesarecapableoftakingabathingbrushandbathpowder,

goingtotheriver,andwashingoffdustanddirt.”

“Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of what

[authority]dothebrahminsinthiscasesaythus:‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste

...heirsofBrahmā’?”

11. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:

‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...heirsofBrahmā.’”

“Whatdoyouthink,Assalāyana?Supposeaconsecratedkhattiyakingwereto

assemblehereahundredmenofdifferentbirthandsaytothem:‘Come,sirs,let

anyherewhohavebeenbornintoakhattiyaclanorabrahminclanoraroyal

clantakeanupperfire-stickoffinequalitywoodandlightafireandproduce

heat.Andalsoletanywhohavebeenbornintoanoutcastclan,atrapperclan,a

wicker workers’ clan, a cartwrights’ clan, or a scavengers’ clan take an upper

fire-stick made from a dog’s drinking trough, from a pig’s trough, from a

dustbin,orfromcastor-oilwoodandlightafireandproduceheat.’

“Whatdoyouthink,Assalāyana?Whenafireislitandheatisproducedby

someoneinthefirstgroup,wouldthatfirehaveaflame,acolor,andradiance,

andwoulditbepossibletouseitforthepurposesoffire,whilewhenafireislit

andheatisproducedbysomeoneofthesecondgroup,thatfirewouldhaveno

flame,nocolor,andnoradiance,anditwouldnotbepossibletouseitforthe

purposesoffire?”

“No,MasterGotama.Whenafireislitandheatisproducedbysomeoneof

thefirstgroup,thatfirewouldhaveaflame,acolor,andradiance,anditwould

bepossibletouseitforthepurposesoffire.Andwhenafireislitandheatis

producedbysomeoneofthesecondgroup,thatfiretoowouldhaveaflame,a

color,andradiance,anditwouldbepossibletouseitforthepurposesoffire.

Forallfirehasaflame,acolor,andaradiance,anditispossibletouseallfire

forthepurposesoffire.”

“Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of what

[authority]dothebrahminsinthiscasesaythus:‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste

...heirsofBrahmā’?”

12. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:

‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...heirsofBrahmā.’”

“Whatdoyouthink,Assalāyana?Supposeakhattiyayouthweretounitewith

abrahmingirl,andasonwasbornfromtheirunion.Shouldasonbornfroma

khattiya youth and a brahmin girl be called a khattiya after the father or a

brahminafterthemother?”

“Hecouldbecalledboth,MasterGotama.”

13.“Whatdoyouthink,Assalāyana?Supposeabrahminyouthherewereto

unitewithakhattiyagirl,andasonweretobebornfromtheirunion.Shouldthe

sonbornfromabrahminyouthandakhattiyagirlbecalledakhattiyaafterthe

motherorabrahminafterthefather?”

“Hecouldbecalledboth,MasterGotama.”

14.“Whatdoyouthink,Assalāyana?Supposeamareweretobematedwitha

maledonkey,andafoalweretobebornastheresult.Shouldthefoalbecalleda

horseafterthemotheroradonkeyafterthefather?”

“Itisamule,MasterGotama,sinceitdoesnotbelongtoeitherkind.Iseethe

differenceinthislastcase,butIseenodifferenceineitheroftheformercases.”

15. “What do you think, Assalāyana? Suppose there were two brahmin

students who were brothers, born of the same mother, one studious and

intelligent, and one neither studious nor intelligent. Which of them would

brahmins feed first at a funeral feast, or at a ceremonial offering, or at a

sacrificialfeast,oratafeastforguests?”

“Onsuchoccasions,brahminswouldfeedfirsttheonewhowasstudiousand

intelligent,MasterGotama;forhowcouldwhatisgiventoonewhoisneither

studiousnorintelligentbringgreatfruit?”

16. “What do you think, Assalāyana? Suppose there were two brahmin

students who were brothers, born of the same mother, one studious and

intelligent, but immoral and of bad character, and one neither studious nor

intelligent,butvirtuousandofgoodcharacter.Whichofthemwouldbrahmins

feedfirstatafuneralfeast,orataceremonialoffering,oratasacrificialfeast,or

ata feastfor guests?” “On such occasions,brahmins would feed first the one

who was neither studious nor intelligent, but virtuous and of good character,

MasterGotama;forhowcouldwhatisgiventoonewhoisimmoralandofbad

characterbringgreatfruit?”

17.“First,Assalāyana,youtookyourstandonbirth,andafterthatyoutook

yourstandonscripturallearning,andafterthatyouhavecometotakeyourstand

ontheverygroundthatpurificationisforallfourcastes,asIdescribeit.”

Whenthiswassaid,thebrahminstudentAssalāyanasatsilentanddismayed,

hisshouldersdroopingandheaddown,glumandwithoutresponse.

(MN93:AssalāyanaSutta,abridged;II147–54)

(4)SevenPrinciplesofSocialStability

1.1.ThushaveIheard.OncetheBlessedOnewasstayingatRājagahaonMount

VulturePeak.NowjustthenKingAjātasattuVedehiputtaofMagadhawantedto

attacktheVajjians.

Hesaid:“IwillstriketheVajjianswhoaresopowerfuland

strong, I will cut them off and destroy them, I will bring them to ruin and

destruction!”

1.2.And KingAjātasattu said to his chief minister, the brahminVassakāra:

“Brahmin,gototheBlessedOne,worshiphimwithyourheadtohisfeetinmy

name,askifheisfreefromsicknessordisease,ifheislivingatease,vigorously

andcomfortably,andthensay:‘Lord,KingAjātasattuVedehiputtaofMagadha

wishestoattacktheVajjiansandsays:“IwillstriketheVajjians…bringthemto

ruin and destruction!”’ And whatever the Blessed One declares to you, report

thatfaithfullybacktome,forTathāgatasneverlie.”

1.3. “Very good, Sire,” said Vassakāra, and having had the state carriages

harnessed, he mounted one of them and drove in state from Rājagaha to

Vultures’Peak,ridingasfarasthegroundwouldallow,thencontinuingonfoot

towheretheBlessedOnewas.HeexchangedcourtesieswiththeBlessedOne,

thensatdowntoonesideanddeliveredtheking’smessage.

1.4.NowtheVenerableĀnandawasstandingbehindtheBlessedOne,fanning

him.AndtheBlessedOnesaid:

(1) “Ānanda, have you heard that the Vajjians hold regular and frequent

assemblies?”—“Ihaveheard,venerablesir,thattheydo.”

“Ānanda,aslongastheVajjiansholdregularandfrequentassemblies,they

maybeexpectedtoprosperandnotdecline.

(2)“HaveyouheardthattheVajjiansmeetinharmony,breakupinharmony,

andcarryontheirbusinessinharmony?”—“Ihaveheard,venerablesir,thatthey

do.”

“Ānanda,aslongastheVajjiansmeetinharmony,breakupinharmony,and

carry on their business in harmony, they may be expected to prosper and not

decline.

(3) “Have you heard that the Vajjians do not authorize what has not been

authorized already, and do not abolish what has been authorized, but proceed

according to what has been authorized by their ancient tradition?”—“I have,

venerablesir.”…(4)“Haveyouheardthattheyhonor,respect,revere,andsalute

theeldersamongthem,andconsiderthemworthlisteningto?…(5)thattheydo

notforcibly abductothers’ wives and daughters andcompel themto livewith

them?… (6) that they honor, respect, revere, and salute the Vajjian shrines at

homeandabroad,notwithdrawingthepropersupportmadeandgivenbefore?…

(7)thatproperprovisionismadeforthesafetyofarahants,sothatsucharahants

may come in future to live there and those already there may dwell in

comfort?”—“Ihave,Lord.”

“Ānanda, so long as such proper provision is made ... the Vajjians may be

expectedtoprosperandnotdecline.”

1.5.Then the Lord said to the brahminVassakāra:“Once, brahmin, when I

wasattheSārandadaShrineinVesāli,ItaughttheVajjiansthesesevenprinciples

forpreventingdecline,andaslongastheykeeptothesesevenprinciples,aslong

astheseprinciplesremaininforce,theVajjiansmaybeexpectedtoprosperand

notdecline.”

Atthis,Vassakārareplied:“MasterGotama,iftheVajjianskeeptoevenoneof

theseprinciples,theymaybeexpectedtoprosperandnotdecline—farlessall

seven. Certainly the Vajjians will never be conquered by King Ajātasattu by

forceofarms, butonly bymeans of propagandaand settingthem against one

another.Andnow,MasterGotama,Imustdepart.Iambusyandhavemuchto

do.”

“Brahmin,doasyouthinkfit.”ThenVassakāra,rejoicinganddelightedatthe

BlessedOne’swords,rosefromhisseatanddeparted.

1.6. Soon after Vassakāra had gone, the Blessed One said: “Ānanda, go to

whatever monks there are living around Rājagaha, and summon them to the

assemblyhall.”

“Yes,venerablesir,”saidĀnanda,andhedidso.ThenhecametotheBlessed

One, saluted him, stood to one side, and said: “Venerable sir, the Saṅgha of

monksisassembled.NowisthetimefortheBlessedOnetodoasheseesfit.”

ThentheBlessedOnerosefromhisseat,wenttotheassemblyhall,satdownon

the prepared seat, and said: “Monks, I will teach you seven things that are

conducivetowelfare.Listen,paycarefulattention,andIwillspeak.”

“Yes,venerablesir,”saidthemonks,andtheBlessedOnesaid:

“As long as the monks hold regular and frequent assemblies, they may be

expectedtoprosperandnotdecline.Aslongastheymeetinharmony,breakup

inharmony, and carry on their business in harmony,they may be expected to

prosper and not decline. As long as they do not authorize what has not been

authorized already, and do not abolish what has been authorized, but proceed

accordingtowhathasbeenauthorizedbytherulesoftraining…;aslongasthey

honor, respect, revere, and salute the elders of long standing who are long

ordained,fathersandleadersoftheorder…;aslongastheydonotfallpreyto

thecravingthatarisesinthemandleadstorebirth…;aslongastheyaredevoted

to forest-lodgings…; as long as they preserve their mindfulness regarding the

body,sothatinfuturethegoodamongtheircompanionswillcometothem,and

thosewhohavealreadycomewillfeelateasewiththem…;aslongasthemonks

holdtotheseseventhingsandareseentodoso,theymaybeexpectedtoprosper

andnotdecline.”

(fromDN16:MahāparinibbānaSutta;II72–77)

(5)TheWheel-TurningMonarch

3.“And,aftermanyhundredsandthousandsofyears,KingDaḷhanemisaidtoa

certainman: ‘My good man, whenever you see that the sacred wheel-treasure

hasslippedfromitsposition,reportittome.’‘Yes,Sire,’themanreplied.And

aftermanyhundredsandthousandsofyearsthemansawthatthesacredwheel-

treasure had slipped from its position. Seeing this, he reported the fact to the

king.ThenKingDaḷhanemisentforhiseldestson,thecrownprince,andsaid:

‘My son, the sacred wheel-treasure has slipped from its position. And I have

heardsaythatwhenthishappenstoawheel-turningmonarch,hehasnotmuch

longertolive.Ihavehadmyfillofhumanpleasures,nowisthetimetoseek

heavenlypleasures.You,myson,takeovercontrolofthisland.Iwillshaveoff

myhairandbeard,putonochrerobes,andgoforthfromthehouseholdlifeinto

homelessness.’And, having installed his eldest son indue formas king,King

Daḷhanemi shaved off his hair and beard, put on ochre robes, and went forth

fromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.And,sevendaysaftertheroyalsage

hadgoneforth,thesacredwheel-treasurevanished.

4.“Thenacertainmancametotheconsecratedkhattiyakingandsaid:‘Sire,

you should know that the sacred wheel-treasure has disappeared. ’ At this the

kingwasgrievedandfeltsad.Hewenttotheroyalsageandtoldhimthenews.

Andtheroyalsagesaidtohim:‘Myson,youshouldnotgrieveorfeelsadatthe

disappearanceofthewheel-treasure.Thewheel-treasureisnotanheirloomfrom

yourfathers.Butnow,myson,youmustturnyourselfintoanoblewheel-turner.

Andthenitmaycomeaboutthat,ifyouperformthedutiesofanoblewheel-

turningmonarch,ontheuposathadayofthefifteenth,

whenyouhavewashed

yourheadandgoneuptotheverandahontopofyourpalacefortheuposatha

day, the sacred wheel-treasure will appear to you, thousand-spoked, complete

withrim,hub,andallaccessories.’

5. “‘But what, Sire, is the duty of a noble wheel-turning monarch?’—‘It is

this, my son: Yourself depending on the Dhamma, honoring it, revering it,

cherishingit,doinghomagetoit,andveneratingit,havingtheDhammaasyour

badge and banner, acknowledging the Dhamma as your master, you should

establish righteous guard, ward, and protection for your own household, your

troops, your khattiyas and vassals, for brahmins and householders, town and

countryfolk,asceticsandbrahmins,forbeastsandbirds.Letnocrimeprevailin

yourkingdom,andtothosewhoareinneed,givewealth.Andwhateverascetics

andbrahminsinyourkingdomhaverenouncedthelifeofsensualinfatuationand

aredevotedto forbearanceand gentleness,each one taminghimself, eachone

calminghimself,andeachonestrivingfortheendofcraving,fromtimetotime

you should approach them and ask: “What, venerable sirs, is wholesome and

whatisunwholesome,whatisblameworthyandwhatisblameless,whatistobe

followedandwhatisnottobefollowed?Whatactionwillinthelongrunleadto

harm and sorrow, and what to welfare and happiness?”

 Having listened to

them,youshouldavoidwhatisunwholesomeanddowhatiswholesome.That,

my son, is the duty of a noble wheel-turning monarch.’ “‘Yes, Sire,’ said the

king,andheperformedthedutiesofanoblewheel-turningmonarch.Andashe

didso,ontheuposathadayofthefifteenth,whenhehadwashedhisheadand

goneup tothe verandah ontop ofhis palace forthe uposathaday,the sacred

wheel-treasureappearedtohim,thousand-spoked,completewithrim,hub,and

allaccessories.Thenthekingthought:‘Ihaveheardthatwhenadulyanointed

khattiya king sees such a wheel on the uposatha day of the fifteenth, he will

becomeawheel-turningmonarch.MayIbecomesuchamonarch?’

6.“Then,risingfromhisseat,coveringoneshoulderwithhisrobe,theking

tookagoldvesselinhislefthand,sprinkledthewheelwithhisrighthand,and

said: ‘May the noble wheel-treasure turn, may the noble wheel-treasure

conquer!’Thewheelturnedtotheeast,andthekingfolloweditwithhisfourfold

army. Andinwhatever countrythewheel stopped,theking took upresidence

withhisfourfoldarmy.Andthosewhoopposedhimintheeasternregioncame

andsaid:‘Come,YourMajesty,welcome.Weareyours,YourMajesty.Ruleus,

Your Majesty.’ And the king said: ‘Do not take life. Do not take what is not

given. Do not commit sexual misconduct. Do not tell lies. Do not drink

intoxicating drinks. Enjoy your possessions as before.’

 And those who had

opposedhimintheeasternregionbecamehissubjects.

7.“Thenthewheelturnedsouth,west,andnorth...[assection6]...Thenthe

wheel-treasure,havingconqueredthelandsfromseatosea,returnedtotheroyal

capital and stopped before the king’s palace as he was trying a case, as if to

adorntheroyalpalace.”

(fromDN26:Cakkavatti-SīhanādaSutta;III59–63)

(6)BringingTranquillitytotheLand

9. Sitting to one side, the brahmin Kūṭadanta addressed the Blessed One:

“MasterGotama,Ihaveheardthatyouunderstandhowtoconductsuccessfully

thetriplesacrificewithitssixteenrequisites.NowIdonotunderstandallthis,

butIwanttomakeabigsacrifice.ItwouldbegoodifMasterGotamawould

explainthistome.”

“Thenlisten,brahmin,payproperattention,andIwillexplain.”

“Yes,sir,”repliedKūṭadanta,andtheBlessedOnecontinued:

10.“Brahmin,onceuponatimetherewasakingcalledMahāvijita.Hewas

rich, of great wealth and resources, with an abundance of gold and silver, of

possessionsandrequisites,ofmoneyandmoney’sworth,withafulltreasuryand

granary.AndwhenKingMahāvijitawasreflectinginprivate,thethoughtcame

to him: ‘I have acquired extensive wealth in human terms, I occupy a wide

extentoflandwhichIhaveconquered.Letmenowmakeagreatsacrificethat

would be to my benefit and happiness for a long time.’ And calling his

chaplain,

he told him his thought.‘I wantto makea greatsacrifice. Instruct

me,venerablesir,howthismaybetomylastingbenefitandhappiness.’

11.“Thechaplain replied: ‘YourMajesty’s countryisbeset by thieves.Itis

ravaged;villagesandtownsarebeingdestroyed;thecountrysideisinfestedwith

brigands.IfYourMajestyweretotaxthisregion,thatwouldbethewrongthing

to do. Suppose Your Majesty were to think: “I will get rid of this plague of

robbers by executions and imprisonment, or by confiscation, threats, and

banishment,” the plague would not be properly ended. Those who survived

would later harm Your Majesty’s realm. However, with this plan you can

completelyeliminatetheplague.Tothoseinthe kingdom who areengagedin

cultivatingcropsandraisingcattle,letYourMajestydistributegrainandfodder;

to those in trade, give capital; to those in government service assign proper

livingwages.Thenthosepeople,beingintentontheirownoccupations,willnot

harm the kingdom. Your Majesty’s revenues will be great; the land will be

tranquilandnotbesetbythieves;andthepeople,withjoyintheirhearts,playing

withtheirchildren,willdwellinopenhouses.’“Andsaying:‘Sobeit!,’theking

accepted the chaplain’s advice: he gave grain and fodder to those engaged in

cultivatingcropsandraisingcattle,capitaltothoseintrade,properlivingwages

to those in government service. Then those people, being intent on their own

occupations,didnotharmthekingdom.Theking’srevenuesbecamegreat;the

land was tranquil and not beset by thieves; and the people, with joy in their

hearts,playingwiththeirchildren,dwelledinopenhouses.”

(fromDN5:KūṭadantaSutta;I134–36)

V.TheWaytoaFortunateRebirth

INTRODUCTION

Inhisaccountofhis“noblequest,”theBuddhasaysthatwhenhegazedout

upontheworldsoonafterhisenlightenment,hesawthatsentientbeingsarelike

lotusflowersatvariousstagesofgrowthwithinapond(seep.71).Whilesome

beingsarelikelotusesatornearthesurfaceofthepond,capableofawakening

merelybybeingexposedtohisworld-transcendingteachings,thevastmajority

ofpeoplewhoencountertheDhammaarelikethelotusesgrowingdeepbelow

thesurface.Theselotusesbenefitfromthesunlightanduseitsenergytosustain

theirlife,yetstillneedtimetoreachthesurfaceandblossom.Sotoo,thegreat

multitudeof people who hear the Buddha’steachings and establishfaith must

stillnurturetheir wholesomequalitieswith theradiant energyof theDhamma

beforetheirmindstreamsbecomematureenoughtoattaindirectrealization.This

processordinarilyrequiresmanylives,andthussuchpeoplehavetotakealong-

term approach to their spiritual development. While practicing the way to

liberation, they must avoid a rebirth in the unfortunate realms and win

successiverebirthsblessedwithmaterialsecurity,happiness,andopportunities

forfurtherspiritualprogress.

These benefits, the enhancing conditions for spiritual development in the

Dhamma, come about by the acquisition of puñña or “merit,” a word that

signifiesthecapacityofwholesomeactiontoyieldbeneficialresultswithinthe

cycleofrebirths.AccordingtotheBuddha’steaching,thecosmos,withitsmany

realms of sentient existence, is governed at all levels by immutable laws,

physical,biological,psychological, andethical. The processby whichsentient

beings migrate from one state of existence to another is likewise lawful. It is

regulatedbyalawthatworksintwoprincipalways:first,itconnectsouractions

withaparticularrealmofrebirththatcorrespondstoouractions;andsecond,it

determinestherelationsbetweenouractionsandthequalityofourexperience

withintheparticularrealmintowhichwehavebeenreborn.

Thegoverningfactorinthisprocess,thefactorthatmakestheentireprocessa

lawfulone,isaforcecalledkamma(Skt:karma).Theword“kamma”literally

meansaction,buttechnicallyitreferstovolitionalaction.AstheBuddhasays:

“Itisvolition(cetanā)thatIcallkamma;forhavingwilled(cetayitvā),oneacts

by body, speech, and mind.”

 Kamma thus denotes deeds that originate from

volition.Suchvolitionmayremainpurelymental,generatingmentalkammathat

occursasthoughts,plans,anddesires;oritmaycometoexpressionoutwardly

throughmanifestbodilyandverbalactions.

It may seem that our deeds, once performed, perish and vanish without

leavingbehindanytracesapartfromtheirvisibleimpactonotherpeopleandour

environment. However, according to the Buddha, all morally determinate

volitional actions create a potential to bring forth results (vipāka) or fruits

(phala)thatcorrespondtotheethicalqualityofthoseactions.Thiscapacityof

ourdeedstoproducethemorallyappropriateresultsiswhatismeantbykamma.

Ourdeedsgeneratekamma,apotentialtoproducefruitsthatcorrespondtotheir

own intrinsic tendencies. Then, when internal and external conditions are

suitable,thekammaripensandproducestheappropriatefruits.Inripening,the

kammareboundsuponusforgoodorforharmdependingonthemoralquality

oftheoriginalaction.Thismayhappeneitherlaterinthesamelifeinwhichthe

actionwasdone,inthenextlife,orinsomedistantfuturelife.

Theonething

thatiscertainisthataslongasweremainwithinsaṃsāraanystored-upkamma

of ours will be capable of ripening so longas it has not yet produced its due

results.

Onthebasisofitsethicalquality,theBuddhadistinguisheskammaintotwo

major categories: the unwholesome (akusala) and the wholesome (kusala).

Unwholesome kamma is action that is spiritually detrimental to the agent,

morallyreprehensible,andpotentiallyproductiveofanunfortunaterebirthand

painful results. The criterion for judging an action to be unwholesome is its

underlying motives, the “roots” from which it springs. There are three

unwholesomeroots:greed,hatred,anddelusion.Fromthesetherearisesawide

variety of secondary defilements—states such as anger, hostility, envy,

selfishness, arrogance, pride, presumption, and laziness—and from the root

defilementsandsecondarydefilementsarisedefiledactions.

Wholesomekamma,ontheotherhand,isactionthatisspirituallybeneficial

andmorallycommendable;itisactionthatripensinhappinessandgoodfortune.

Itsunderlyingmotivesarethethreewholesomeroots:nongreed,nonhatred,and

nondelusion, which may be expressed more positively as generosity, loving-

kindness,andwisdom.Whereasactionsspringingfromtheunwholesomeroots

arenecessarilyboundtotheworldofrepeatedbirthanddeath,actionsspringing

from the wholesome roots may be of two kinds, mundane and world-

transcending. The mundane (lokiya) wholesome actions have the potential to

produceafortunaterebirthandpleasantresultswithintheroundofrebirths.The

world-transcending or supramundane (lokuttara) wholesome actions—namely,

thekammageneratedbydevelopingtheNobleEightfoldPathandtheotheraids

to enlightenment—lead to enlightenment and to liberation from the round of

rebirths. This is the kamma that dismantles the entire process of karmic

causation.

Thecorrelationbetweenkammaanditsresultsisindicatedinageneralwayin

Text V,1(1). This sutta refers to unwholesome action as “dark kamma” and

mundanewholesomeactionas“brightkamma.”Italsoreferstoatypeofkamma

that is both dark and bright. Strictly speaking, this does not denote a single

action that simultaneously partakes of both unwholesome and wholesome

characteristics;technicallysuchathingisimpossible,foranactionmustbeone

or the other. The combined kamma refers to the conduct of a person who

intermittentlyengagesinboth unwholesomeandwholesomebehavior. Finally,

thesuttaspeaksofafourthtypeofkammathatisneitherdarknorbright.Thisis

the action of developing the Noble Eightfold Path, the wholesome world-

transcendingkamma.

It cannot be emphasized strongly enough that for Early Buddhism an

understanding and acceptance of this principle of kamma and its fruit is an

essentialcomponentofrightview.Rightviewhastwoaspects,theworld-bound

or mundane aspect, which pertains to life within the world, and the

supramundane or world-transcending aspect, which pertains to the path to

liberation.

Theworld-transcendingrightviewincludesanunderstandingofthe

FourNobleTruths,dependentorigination,andthethreemarksofimpermanence,

suffering,andnonself.ForEarlyBuddhismthisworld-transcendingrightview

cannotbetakenupinisolationfrommundanerightview.Rather,itpresupposes

anddependsuponthesoundsupportofmundanerightview,whichmeansafirm

conviction in the validity of the law of kamma and its unfolding through the

processofrebirths.

To accept the law of kamma entails a radical transformation in our

understandingofourrelationshiptotheworld.Thetwindoctrinesofkammaand

rebirthenableustoseethattheworldinwhichweliveis,inimportantrespects,

anexternal reflectionof the internal cosmos ofthe mind. Thisdoes notmean

that the external world can be reduced to a mental projection in the way

proposed by certain types of philosophical idealism. However, taken in

conjunction, these two doctrines do show that the conditions under which we

livecloselycorrespondtothekarmictendenciesofourminds.Thereasonwhya

livingbeingisrebornintoaparticularrealmisbecause in apreviouslifethat

being has generated the kamma, or volitional action,that leadsto rebirthinto

that realm. Thus, in the final analysis, all the realms of existence have been

formed,fashioned,andsustainedbythementalactivityoflivingbeings.Asthe

Buddha says: “For beings obstructed by ignorance and hindered by craving,

kamma is the field, consciousness the seed, and craving the moisture, for

consciousness to be established in a new realm of existence—either inferior,

middling,orsuperior”(AN3:76;I223).

Thenextselection,TextV,1(2),drawsafinerdistinctionamongthetypesof

unwholesome and wholesome kamma. The text enumerates ten primary

instancesofeachclass.Heretheyarecalledrespectively“unrighteousconduct,

conductnotinaccordancewiththeDhamma”and“righteousconduct,conduct

in accordance with the Dhamma” but they are usually known as the ten

pathwaysofunwholesomeandwholesomekamma.

Thetenaresubdividedby

way of the three “doors of action”—body, speech, and mind. Taking the

unwholesomefirst,therearethreekindsofbodilymisconduct:killing,stealing,

and sexual misconduct; four kinds of verbal misconduct: lying, malicious

speech, harsh speech, and idle chatter (or gossip); and three kinds of mental

misconduct: covetousness, ill will, and wrong view. The ten courses of

wholesomeactionaretheirexactopposites:abstinencefromthethreekindsof

bodily misconduct; abstinence from the four kinds of verbal misconduct; and

noncovetousness,goodwill,andrightview.Accordingtothesutta,thetentypes

of unwholesome kamma are the reason that beings are reborn in the bad

destinationsafterdeath;thetentypesofwholesomekammaarethereasonthat

beingsarereborninthegooddestinationsafterdeath.Asthesuttashows,theten

typesofwholesomekammaarethesupport,notonlyforaheavenlyrebirth,but

alsofor“thedestructionofthetaints,”theattainmentofliberation.

The concluding paragraphs of this sutta give us a brief survey of Buddhist

cosmology.TheBuddhistcosmosisdividedintothreebroadrealms—thesense-

sphererealm(kāmadhātu),theformrealm(rūpadh̄tu),andtheformlessrealm

(arūpadhātu)—eachcomprisingarangeofsubsidiaryplanes.

Thesense-sphererealm,ourrealm,issocalledbecausethebeingsrebornhere

arestronglydrivenbysensualdesire.Therealmisdividedintotwolevels,the

bad destinations and the good destinations. The bad destinations or “states of

misery”(apāya)arethreeinnumber:thehells,statesofintensetorment(seeMN

129 and 130, not included in this anthology); the animal kingdom; and the

sphereofspirits(pettivisaya),beingsafflictedwithincessanthunger,thirst,and

other sufferings. These are the realms of retribution for the ten unwholesome

pathsofkamma.

Thegooddestinationsinthesense-sphererealmarethehumanworldandthe

sixsensualheavenlyplanes.Thelatterare:thedevasintheheavenoftheFour

GreatKings,whoarepresidedoverbyfourpowerfuldevas(namely,theFour

Great Kings); the Tāvatiṃsa devas presided over by Sakka, a devotee of the

Buddha who is faithful but prone to negligence (see the Sakkasaṃyutta, SN

chapter 11); the Yāma devas; the devas of the Tusita heaven, the abode of a

bodhisattabeforehisfinalbirth;theNimmānaratīdevas(“thegodswhodelight

increating”);andtheParanimmitavasavattīdevas(“thegodswhocontrolwhatis

createdbyothers”).Thekarmiccauseforrebirthintothegooddestinationsof

thesense-sphererealmisthepracticeofthetencoursesofwholesomeaction.

Intheformrealmthegrossertypesofmaterialformareabsent.Itsdenizens,

knownasbrahmās,enjoybliss,power,luminosity,andvitalityfarsuperiortothe

beings in the sense-sphere realm. The form realm consists of sixteen planes.

Thesearetheobjectivecounterpartsofthefourjhānas.Attainmentofthefirst

jhānaleadstorebirthamongBrahmā’sassembly,theministersofBrahmā,and

theMahābrahmās,accordingtowhetheritisdevelopedtoaninferior,middling,

orsuperiordegree.Thesecondjhāna,attainedinthesamethreedegrees,leads

respectively to rebirth among the devas of limited radiance, of measureless

radiance,andofstreamingradiance.Thethirdjhāna,attainedinthesamethree

degrees, leads respectively to rebirth among the devas of limited glory, of

measurelessglory, and of refulgent glory.The fourth jhāna ordinarily leads to

rebirthamongthedevasofgreatfruit,butifdevelopedwithafeelingofdisgust

for perception, it will conduce to rebirth among the “nonpercipient beings,”

beingswholackperception.Theformrealmalsocomprisesfiveplanesreserved

exclusively for the rebirth of nonreturners (see pp. 379–80), called the pure

abodes: aviha, atappa, sudassa, sudassī, and akaniṭṭha. In each of the subtle

form planes, the lifespan is said to be of enormous duration and to increase

significantlywitheachhigherplane.

Inthethirdrealmofexistence,materialformisnonexistentandbaremental

processesexist;henceitiscalledtheformlessrealm.Thisrealmconsistsoffour

planes, which are the objective counterparts of the four formless meditative

attainments,after whichthey are named: the baseof the infinityof space,the

baseoftheinfinityofconsciousness,thebaseofnothingness,andthebaseof

neither-perception-nor-nonperception.Thelifespansascribedtotheserealmsare

respectively20,000;40,000;60,000;and84,000greateons.(Forthedurationof

oneeon,seeTextI,4(3).)

For Buddhist cosmology, existence in every realm, being the product of a

kamma with a finite potency, is necessarily impermanent. Beings take rebirth

intoarealmappropriatefortheirkammaordeeds,experiencethegoodorbad

results,andthen,whenthegenerativekammahasspentitsforce,theypassaway

totakerebirthelsewhereasdeterminedbystillanotherkammathathasfound

the opportunity to ripen. Hence the torments of hell as well as the joys of

heaven,nomatterhowlongtheymaylast,areboundtopass.TheBuddhaguides

thosewhosespiritualfacultiesarestilltendertoaspireforahumanorheavenly

rebirthandteachesthemthelinesofconductthatconducetothefulfillmentof

theiraspirations.Butheurgesthosewithmaturefacultiestomakeadetermined

efforttoputanendtotheaimlesswanderingofsaṃsāraandreachtheDeathless,

Nibbāna,whichtranscendsallconditionedplanesofbeing.

Whilethefirsttwotextsinthischapterestablishageneralcorrelationbetween

kamma and spheres of rebirth, Text V,1(3) specifies the underlying karmic

causesforthemanifestdifferencesinhumanlife.Itdoessowithreferencetoa

well-knownsayingoftheBuddha:“Beingsareownersoftheirkamma,heirsof

theirkamma;theyoriginatefromtheirkamma,areboundtotheirkamma,have

theirkammaastheirrefuge.Itiskammathatdistinguishesbeingsasinferiorand

superior.”Thesuttaproposestoexplainthisstatementwithregardtosevenpairs

of contrasting qualities observed among people. This text also introduces a

distinctionbetweentwotypesofconsequencesthatanunwholesomekammacan

have:themorepowerfulisrebirthinabaddestination;theotherisunpleasant

fruitswithin the humanstate, for example,a short lifespanfor one who in an

earlier life killed living beings. An analogous distinction obtains among the

consequencesthatawholesomekammacanhave:themorepowerfulisrebirthin

aheavenlyworld;theotherispleasantfruitswithinthehumanstate.

The next section deals with merit (puñña), wholesome kamma capable of

yieldingfavorableresultswithinthecycleofrebirths.Meritproducesmundane

benefits,suchasagoodrebirth,wealth,beauty,andsuccess.Italsoservesasan

enhancingconditionforsupramundanebenefits,thatis,forattainingthestages

alongthepathtoenlightenment.Hence,asseeninTextV,2(1),theBuddhaurges

his disciples to cultivate merit, referring to his own cultivation of merit over

manypreviouslivesasanexample.

The Nikāyas concisely organize the types of merit into three “bases of

meritorious deeds” (puññakiriyavatthu): giving, moral discipline, and

meditation.TextV,2(2)connectsthebasesofmeritwiththetypesofrebirthto

whichtheylead.IntheIndianreligiouscontext,thepracticeofmeritoriousdeeds

revolves around faith in certain objects regarded as sacred and spiritually

empowering, capable of serving as a support for the acquisition of merit. For

followersoftheBuddha’steachingthesearetheThreeJewels:theBuddha,the

Dhamma, and the Saṅgha.Text V,2(3) extols these as each supreme in its

particularsphere:theBuddha issupremeamong persons,theDhamma among

teachings,andtheSaṅghaamongreligiouscommunities.Thetextproposes an

interesting twofold distinction of the Dhamma Jewel: among all conditioned

things (dhammā saṅkhatā), the Noble Eightfold Path is supreme; among all

things conditioned or unconditioned (dhamm̄ saṅkhatā vā asaṅkhatā vā),

Nibbāna is supreme. Merely having confidence in the Three Jewels, that is,

reverentialtrustanddevotiontowardthem,isitselfabasisofmerit;butasthe

versesattachedtothesuttamakeclear,theBuddhaandtheSaṅghaadditionally

functionastherecipientsofgifts,andinthisroletheyfurtherenabledonorsto

acquire merit leading to the fulfillment of their virtuous wishes. More will be

saidaboutthisaspectofmeritjustbelow.

Thefollowing sections of this chapter elaborate on the three bases of merit

individually, beginning in section 3 with giving or generosity (dāna). The

Buddhaoftentreatedgivingasthemostrudimentaryvirtueofthespirituallife,

for giving serves to break down the egocentric frame of mind on the basis of

which we habitually interact with others. Contrary to what a Western reader

might expect, however, “giving” for Early Buddhism does not mean simply

philanthropic charity directed toward the poor and disadvantaged. While it

includesthis,thepracticeofgivinghasamorecontext-specificmeaningrooted

inthesocial structure ofIndianreligiosity.InIndia duringtheBuddha’s time,

those who sought to fathom the deepest truths of existence and attain release

from the round of birth and death usually renounced home and family,

relinquishedtheirsecureplaceinthecohesiveIndiansocialorder,andadopted

theprecariouslifeofthehomelesswanderer.Withshavedheadsormattedlocks,

clad in ochre or white robes or going naked, they would move from place to

placewithoutfixedabode,exceptduringthethreemonthsoftherainyseason,

whentheywouldsettleinsimplehuts,caves,orotherlodgings.Suchhomeless

wanderers,known as samaṇas (“ascetics”)or paribbājakas (“wanderers”), did

not perform any remunerative services but depended upon the charity of

householders for their livelihood. The lay devotees provided them with their

material requisites—robes, food, lodgings, and medicines—doing so in the

confidence that such services were a source of merit that would help them

advanceafewstepsfartherinthedirectionoffinalemancipation.

When the Buddha appeared on the scene, he adopted this mode of life for

himself.Oncehecommencedhisworkasaspiritualteacher,heestablishedhis

Saṅghaonthesameprinciple:thebhikkhusandbhikkhunīs,themonksandnuns,

woulddependonthecharityofothersfortheirmaterialsupport,andtheywould

reciprocatebyofferingtheirdonorsthemorepreciousgiftoftheDhamma,the

teaching of the lofty path that leads to happiness, peace, and final liberation.

TextV,3(5)testifiestothisprincipleofmutualsupport.Byacceptingthegiftsof

laypeople,themonasticsgivethemtheopportunitytoacquiremerit.Sincethe

volumeofmeritgeneratedbytheactofgivingisconsideredtobeproportional

totheworthinessoftherecipient,whentherecipientsaretheBuddhaandthose

followinginhisfootsteps,themerit becomes immeasurable(seeMN142,not

included in this anthology). For this reason, the sāvakasaṅgha, the spiritual

communityofnobledisciples,iscalled“theunsurpassedfieldofmeritforthe

world” (anuttaraṃ puññakhettạ lokassa).

 Gifts to the Saṅgha, it is said,

conducetogreatblessings;theyleadtoone’swelfareandhappinessforalong

timeandcanbringrebirthintheheavenlyworlds.ButasTextV,3(6)remindsus,

thisistrue“onlyforthemorallypure,notfortheimmoral.”

Thisleadstothenextbaseofmerit,“moraldiscipline”(sīla),whichforEarly

Buddhismrequirestheundertakingofprecepts.Themostbasicmoralguidelines

inculcatedintheNikāyasarethefiveprecepts,thetrainingrulestoabstainfrom

takinglife,stealing,sexualmisconduct,falsespeech,andtheuseofintoxicants.

These are mentioned in Text V,4(1), which, by an interesting twist in

terminology, speaks of them as “pristine, traditional, ancient gifts,” thus

implicitlysubsumingsīlaunderdāna.Thereasontheobservanceofpreceptsisa

form of giving is because one who undertakes precepts will be “giving to

immeasurable beings freedom from fear, hostility, and oppression,” and as a

karmic consequence “he himself will enjoy immeasurable freedom from fear,

hostility,andoppression.”

WhiletheBuddhaenjoinsobservanceofthefivepreceptsuponlayfollowers

asafull-timeobligation,herecommendsamorestringenttypeofmoralpractice

fortheuposatha,theobservancedaysdeterminedbythelunarcalendar:thefull-

moon day, the new-moon day, and the two half-moon days. (Of the four, in

Buddhistcountriestodayitisthefull-moondaythatisgivenpriority.)Onthese

occasions, devout lay Buddhists undertake eight precepts: the usual five, but

withthethirdchangedtocompletesexualabstinence,augmentedbythreeother

precepts that emulate the training rules of a novice monk or nun. The eight

precepts, enumerated in Text V,4(2), augment the training in sīla as a moral

observancewithatraininginself-restraint,simplicity,andcontentment.Inthis

respecttheypreparethediscipleforthetrainingofthemindundertakeninthe

practiceofmeditation,thethirdbaseofmerit.

Thepracticeofmeditationisnotonlytheheartofthepathtoliberationbuta

sourceofmeritinitsownright.Wholesomemeditationpractices,eventhosethat

do not directly lead to insight, help to purify the grosser levels of mental

defilement and uncover deeper dimensions of the mind’s potential purity and

radiance.TextV,5(1)declaresthatthetypeofmeditationthatismostfruitfulfor

the production of mundane merit is the development of loving-kindness

(mettābhāvanā).Thepracticeofloving-kindness,however,isonlyoneamonga

set of four meditations called the “divine abodes” (brahmavih̄ra) or

“immeasurable states” (appamaññ̄): the development of loving-kindness,

compassion,altruisticjoy,andequanimity,whicharetobeextendedboundlessly

toallsentientbeings.Briefly,loving-kindness(mett̄)isthewishforthewelfare

andhappinessofallbeings;compassion(karuṇā),thefeelingofempathyforall

thoseafflictedwithsuffering;altruisticjoy(muditā),thefeelingofhappinessat

the success and good fortune of others; and equanimity (upekkh̄), a balanced

reactiontojoyandmisery,whichprotectsonefromemotionalagitation.

Thesemeditationsaresaidtobethemeanstorebirthinthebrahmaworld;see

Text V,5(2). While the brahmins regarded the brahma world as the highest

attainment, for the Buddha it was just one exalted sphere of rebirth. The

concentrationarisenfromthesemeditations,however,canalsobeusedasabasis

forcultivatingthewisdomofinsight,andinsightculminatesinliberation.Text

V,5(3),thelastselectionofthischapter,thusgradesthedifferenttypesofmerit

according to their fruits: from giving (with the various kinds of gifts ranked

accordingtothespiritualstatusoftherecipients)throughthegoingforrefuge

andthefivepreceptstothemeditationonloving-kindness.Then,attheveryend,

it declares that the most fruitful deed among them all is the perception of

impermanence. The perception of impermanence, however, belongs to a

different order. It is so fruitful not because it yields pleasant mundane results

withintheroundofrebirths,butbecauseitleadstothewisdomofinsightthat

cutsthechainsofbondageandbringstherealizationofcompleteemancipation,

Nibbāna.

V.THEWAYTOAFORTUNATEREBIRTH

1.THELAWOFKAMMA

(1)FourKindsofKamma

“There are, O monks, these four kinds of kamma declared by me after I had

realizedthemformyselfbydirectknowledge.Whatfour?

“There is dark kamma with dark results; thereis bright kamma with bright

results;thereiskammathatisdarkandbrightwithdarkandbrightresults;there

is kamma that is neither dark nor bright, with neither dark nor bright results,

whichleadstothedestructionofkamma.

“Andwhat,monks,isdarkkammawithdarkresults?Here,monks,someone

generates an afflictive volitional formation of body, speech, or mind. Having

doneso,heisreborninanafflictiveworld.Whenheisreborninanafflictive

world, afflictive contacts touch him. Being touched by afflictive contacts, he

experiencesanafflictivefeeling,extremelypainful,asforexamplethebeingsin

hellexperience.Thisiscalleddarkkammawithdarkresults.

“And what, monks, is bright kamma with bright results? Here, monks,

someone generates a non-afflictive volitional formation of body, speech, or

mind.Havingdoneso,heisreborninanon-afflictiveworld.Whenheisreborn

in a non-afflictive world, non-afflictive contacts touch him. Being touched by

non-afflictive contacts, he experiences a non-afflictive feeling, extremely

pleasant,asforexamplethedevasofrefulgentgloryexperience.

Thisiscalled

brightkammawithbrightresults.

“Andwhat, monks,is darkand brightkamma withdark and bright results?

Here,monks,someonegeneratesbothanafflictivevolitionalformationofbody,

speech, or mind and a non-afflictive volitional formation of body, speech, or

mind.Havingdoneso,heisreborninaworldthatisbothafflictiveandnon-

afflictive.Whenheisreborninsuchaworld,bothafflictiveandnon-afflictive

contacts touch him. Being touched by such contacts, he experiences both an

afflictivefeelingandanon-afflictivefeeling,amixtureandconglomerationof

pleasure and pain, as for example human beings and some devas and some

beingsinthelowerworldexperience.Thisiscalleddarkandbrightkammawith

darkandbrightresults.

“Andwhat,monks,iskammathatisneitherdarknorbright,withneitherdark

nor bright results, which leads to the destruction of kamma? The volition to

abandonthisdarkkammawithdarkresults,andtoabandonthebrightkamma

with bright results, and to abandon the dark and bright kamma with dark and

bright results—this is called the kamma that is neither dark nor bright, with

neitherdarknorbrightresults,whichleadstothedestructionofkamma.

“These, monks, are the four kinds of kamma declared by me after I had

realizedthemformyselfbydirectknowledge.”

(AN4:232;II230–32)

(2)WhyBeingsFareasTheyDoAfterDeath

1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaswanderingbystages

intheKosalancountrywithalargeSaṅghaofmonks,andeventuallyhearrived

ataKosalanbrahminvillagenamedSālā.

2.ThebrahminhouseholdersofSālāheard:“ItissaidthattheasceticGotama,

theSakyansonwhowentforthfromaSakyanclan,hasbeenwanderinginthe

Kosalan country with a largeSaṅgha of monks and has come toSālā. Now a

goodreportofMasterGotamahasbeencirculatingthus:‘ThatBlessedOneisan

arahant...[asinTextIII,2]…thatisperfectlycompleteandpurified.’Nowitis

goodtoseesucharahants.”

3.ThenthebrahminhouseholdersofSālāwenttotheBlessedOne.Somepaid

homagetohimandsatdowntooneside;someexchangedgreetingswithhim

and,aftertheirgreetingsandcordialtalk,satdowntooneside;somesalutedhim

reverentiallyandsatdowntooneside;someremainedsilentandsatdowntoone

side.

4. When they were seated, they said to the Blessed One: “Master Gotama,

whatis thecause andcondition whysome beingshere, onthe breakupof the

body, after death, are reborn in a state of misery, in a bad destination, in the

lowerworld,inhell?Andwhatisthecauseandconditionwhysomebeingshere,

onthebreakup ofthe body, afterdeath, arereborn in agood destination,in a

heavenlyworld?”

5. “Householders, it is by reason of unrighteous conduct, conduct not in

accordance with the Dhamma, that some beings here, on the breakup of the

body, after death, are reborn in a state of misery, in a bad destination, in the

lowerworld,inhell.Itisbyreasonofrighteousconduct,conductinaccordance

with the Dhamma, that some beings here, on the breakup of the body, after

death,arereborninagooddestination,inaheavenlyworld.”

6.“WedonotunderstandthedetailedmeaningofMasterGotama’sstatement,

whichhehasspokeninbriefwithoutexpoundingthedetailedmeaning.Itwould

be good if Master Gotama would teach us the Dhamma so that we might

understandthedetailedmeaningofhisstatement.”

“Then,householders,listenandattendcloselytowhatIshallsay.”

“Yes,venerablesir,”theyreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:

7. “Householders, there are three kinds of unrighteous bodily conduct,

conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma. There are four kinds of

unrighteousverbalconduct,conductnotinaccordancewiththeDhamma.There

arethreekindsofunrighteousmentalconduct,conductnotinaccordancewith

theDhamma.

8. “And how, householders, are there three kinds of unrighteous bodily

conduct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma? Here someone kills

living beings; he is murderous, bloody-handed, given to blows and violence,

mercilesstolivingbeings.Hetakeswhatisnotgiven;hetakesbywayoftheft

the wealth and property of others in the village or forest. He commits sexual

misconduct;hehasintercoursewithwomenwhoareprotectedbytheirmother,

father,motherandfather,brother,sister,orrelatives,whohaveahusband,who

areprotectedbylaw,andevenwiththosealreadyengaged.Thatishowthereare

threekindsofunrighteousbodilyconduct, conductnotinaccordancewiththe

Dhamma.

9. “And how, householders, are there four kinds of unrighteous verbal

conduct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma? Here someone speaks

falsehood; when summoned to a court, or to a meeting, or to his relatives’

presence,ortohisguild,ortotheroyalfamily’spresence,andquestionedasa

witness thus: ‘So, good man, tell what you know,’ not knowing, he says, ‘I

know,’ or knowing, he says, ‘I do not know’; not seeing, he says, ‘I see,’ or

seeing,hesays,‘Idonotsee’;infullawarenesshespeaksfalsehoodforhisown

ends, or for another’s ends, or for some trifling worldly end. He speaks

maliciously; he repeats elsewhere what he has heard here in order to divide

[those people] from these, or he repeats to these people what he has heard

elsewhere in order to divide [these people] from those; thus he is one who

dividesthosewhoareunited,acreatorofdivisions,whoenjoysdiscord,rejoices

indiscord,delightsindiscord,aspeakerofwordsthatcreatediscord.Hespeaks

harshly;heutterssuchwordsasarerough,hard,hurtfultoothers,offensiveto

others,borderingonanger,notconducivetoconcentration.Heengagesinidle

chatter; he speaks at the wrong time, speaks what is not fact, speaks what is

useless,speakscontrarytotheDhammaandtheDiscipline;atthewrongtimehe

speaks such words as are worthless, unreasonable, immoderate, and

unbeneficial. That is how there are four kinds of unrighteous verbal conduct,

conductnotinaccordancewiththeDhamma.

10. “And how, householders, are there three kinds of unrighteous mental

conduct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma? Here someone is

covetous; he covets the wealth and property of others thus: ‘Oh, may what

belongstoanotherbemine!’Orhehasamindofillwillandintentionsofhate

thus:‘Maythesebeingsbeslainandslaughtered,maytheybecutoff,perish,or

beannihilated!’Orhehaswrongview,distortedvision,thus:‘Thereisnothing

given, nothing offered, nothing sacrificed; no fruit or result of good and bad

actions;nothisworld,nootherworld;nomother,nofather;nobeingswhoare

rebornspontaneously;nogoodandvirtuousasceticsandbrahminsintheworld

whohavethemselvesrealizedbydirectknowledgeanddeclarethisworldand

the other world.’

 That is how there are three kinds of unrighteous mental

conduct,conductnotinaccordancewiththeDhamma.So,householders,itisby

reason of such unrighteous conduct, such conduct not in accordance with the

Dhamma, that some beings here on the breakup of the body, after death, are

reborninastateofmisery,inabaddestination,inthelowerworld,inhell.

11.“Householders,therearethreekindsofrighteousbodilyconduct,conduct

in accordance with the Dhamma. There are four kinds of righteous verbal

conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma. There are three kinds of

righteousmentalconduct,conductinaccordancewiththeDhamma.

12. “And how, householders, are there three kinds of righteous bodily

conduct,conductinaccordancewiththeDhamma?Heresomeone,abandoning

thedestructionoflife,abstainsfromthedestructionoflife;withrodandweapon

laidaside,conscientious,merciful,hedwellscompassionatetoalllivingbeings.

Abandoningthetakingofwhatisnotgiven,heabstainsfromtakingwhatisnot

given;hedoesnottakebywayoftheftthewealthandpropertyofothersinthe

villageorintheforest.Abandoningsexualmisconduct,heabstainsfromsexual

misconduct;hedoesnothaveintercoursewithwomenwhoareprotectedbytheir

mother, father, mother and father, brother, sister, or relatives, who have a

husband,whoareprotectedbylaw,orwiththosealreadyengaged.Thatishow

therearethreekindsofrighteousbodilyconduct,conductinaccordancewiththe

Dhamma.

13.“Andhow,householders,aretherefourkindsofrighteousverbalconduct,

conduct in accordance with the Dhamma? Here someone, abandoning false

speech,abstainsfromfalsespeech;whensummonedtoacourt,ortoameeting,

ortohisrelatives’presence,ortohisguild,ortotheroyalfamily’spresence,and

questionedasawitnessthus:‘So,goodman,tellwhatyouknow,’notknowing,

hesays,‘Idonotknow,’orknowing,hesays,‘Iknow’;notseeing,hesays,‘Ido

notsee,’orseeing,hesays,‘Isee’;hedoesnotinfullawarenessspeakfalsehood

for his own ends, or for another’s ends, or for some trifling worldly end.

Abandoningmaliciousspeech,heabstainsfrommaliciousspeech;hedoesnot

repeatelsewherewhathehasheardhereinordertodivide[thosepeople]from

these,nordoesherepeattothesepeoplewhathehasheardelsewhereinorderto

divide [these people] from those; thus he is one who reunites those who are

divided, a promoter of friendships, who enjoys concord, rejoices in concord,

delightsinconcord,aspeakerofwordsthatpromoteconcord.Abandoningharsh

speech, he abstains from harsh speech; he speaks such words as are gentle,

pleasingto theear,and loveable,as go to the heart, are courteous, desired by

many, and agreeable to many. Abandoning idle chatter, he abstains from idle

chatter;hespeaksattherighttime,speakswhatisfact,speaksonwhatisgood,

speaks on the Dhamma and the Discipline; at the right time he speaks such

wordsasareworthrecording,reasonable,moderate,andbeneficial.Thatishow

therearefourkindsofrighteousverbalconduct,conductinaccordancewiththe

Dhamma.

14. “And how, householders, are there three kinds of righteous mental

conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma? Here someone is not

covetous;he does not covet thewealth and propertyof othersthus: ‘Oh, may

what belongs to another be mine!’ His mind is without ill will, and he has

intentionsfreefromhatethus:‘Maythesebeingsbefreefromenmity,affliction,

andanxiety!Maytheylivehappily!’Hehasrightview,undistortedvision,thus:

‘Thereiswhatisgivenandwhatisofferedandwhatissacrificed;thereisfruit

andresultofgoodandbadactions;thereisthisworldandtheotherworld;there

ismotherandfather;therearebeingswhoarerebornspontaneously;thereare

good and virtuous ascetics and brahmins in the world who have themselves

realizedbydirectknowledgeanddeclarethisworldandtheotherworld.’Thatis

how there are three kinds of righteous mental conduct, conduct in accordance

withtheDhamma.So,householders,itisbyreasonofsuchrighteousconduct,

such conduct in accordance with the Dhamma that some beings here, on the

breakup of the body, after death, are reborn in a good destination, even in a

heavenlyworld.

15. “If, householders, one who observes righteous conduct, conduct in

accordancewiththeDhamma,shouldwish:‘Oh,thatonthebreakupofthebody,

afterdeath,mayIbereborninthecompanyofwell-to-donobles!’itispossible

that,onthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,hewillbereborninthecompanyof

well-to-donobles.Whyisthat?Becauseheobservesrighteousconduct,conduct

inaccordancewiththeDhamma.

16–17. “If, householders, one who observes righteous conduct, conduct in

accordancewiththeDhamma,shouldwish:‘Oh,thatonthebreakupofthebody,

afterdeath,may Ibe rebornin the companyof well-to-dobrahmins!…in the

companyofwell-to-dohouseholders!’itispossiblethat,onthebreakupofthe

body,afterdeath,hewillbereborninthecompanyofwell-to-dohouseholders.

Whyisthat?Becauseheobservesrighteousconduct,conductinaccordancewith

theDhamma.

18–42. “If, householders, one who observes righteous conduct, conduct in

accordancewiththeDhamma,shouldwish:‘Oh,thatonthebreakupofthebody,

afterdeath,mayIbereborninthecompanyofthedevasoftherealmoftheFour

GreatKings!…inthecompanyoftheTāvatiṃsadevas…theYāmadevas…

theTusitadevas…thedevaswhodelightincreating…thedevaswhowield

poweroverothers’creations…thedevasofBrahmā’scompany...thedevasof

radiance

 ... the devas of limited radiance ... the devas of immeasurable

radiance…thedevasofstreamingradiance…thedevasofglory…thedevas

oflimited glory… the devasof immeasurable glory... thedevas of refulgent

glory... thedevas of greatfruit ...the aviha devas ... the atappa devas... the

sudassadevas…thesudassīdevas…theakaniṭṭhadevas…thedevasofthe

base of the infinity of space ... the devas of the base of the infinity of

consciousness…thedevasofthebaseofnothingness…thedevasofthebase

ofneither-perception-nor-non-perception!’ it is possible that on the breakup of

thebody,afterdeath,hewillbereborninthecompanyofthedevasofthebase

of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. Why is that? Because he observes

righteousconduct,conductinaccordancewiththeDhamma.

43. “If, householders, one who observes conduct in accordance with the

Dhamma,righteousconduct,shouldwish:‘Oh, byrealizingitformyselfwith

directknowledge,mayIinthisverylifeenteruponanddwellintheliberationof

mind,liberationbywisdom,thatistaintlesswiththedestructionofthetaints!’it

ispossiblethat,byrealizingitforhimselfwithdirectknowledge,inthisverylife

hewillenteruponanddwellintheliberationofmind,liberationbywisdom,that

istaintlesswiththedestructionofthetaints.Whyisthat?Becauseheobserves

righteousconduct,conductinaccordancewiththeDhamma.”

44.Whenthiswassaid,thebrahminhouseholdersofSālāsaidtotheBlessed

One: “Magnificent, Master Gotama! Magnificent, Master Gotama! Master

GotamahasmadetheDhammaclearinmanyways,asthoughhewereturning

uprightwhathadbeenoverthrown,revealingwhatwashidden,showingtheway

toonewhowaslost,orholdingupalampinthedarknesssothosewithgood

eyesight can see forms. We now go for refuge to Master Gotama, to the

Dhamma, and to the Saṅgha of monks. Let Master Gotama accept us as lay

followerswhohavegoneforrefugefromtodayuntillife’send.”

(MN41:SāleyyakaSutta;I286–90)

(3)KammaandItsFruits

1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatSāvatthīin

Jeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’sPark.

2.ThenthebrahminstudentSubha,Todeyya’sson,wenttotheBlessedOne

andexchangedgreetings withhim. Whenthis courteous andamiable talkwas

finished,hesatdownatonesideandaskedtheBlessedOne:

3.“MasterGotama,whyisitthathumanbeingsareseen tobeinferiorand

superior? For people are seen to be short-lived and long-lived, sickly and

healthy,uglyandbeautiful,withoutinfluenceandinfluential,poorandwealthy,

lowbornandhighborn,stupidandwise.Whyisit,MasterGotama,thathuman

beingsareseentobeinferiorandsuperior?”

4. “Student, beings are owners of their actions, heirs of their actions; they

originatefromtheiractions,areboundtotheiractions,havetheiractionsastheir

refuge.Itisactionthatdistinguishesbeingsasinferiorandsuperior.”

“I do not understand in detail the meaning of Master Gotama’s statement,

whichhespokeinbriefwithoutexpoundingthemeaningindetail.Itwouldbe

goodifMasterGotamawouldteachmetheDhammasothatImightunderstand

indetailthemeaningofhisstatement.”

“Then,student,listenandattendcloselytowhatIshallsay.”

“Yes,sir,”Subhareplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:

5.“Here,student,somemanorwomankillslivingbeingsandismurderous,

bloody-handed,giventoblowsandviolence,mercilesstolivingbeings.Because

of performing and undertaking such action, on the breakup of the body, after

death,heisreborninastateofmisery,inabaddestination,inthelowerworld,

inhell.Butifonthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,heisnotreborninastate

of misery, in a bad destination,in the lower world, in hell, but instead comes

backtothehumanstate,thenwhereverheisrebornheisshort-lived.

Thisis

theway,student,thatleadstoshortlife,namely,onekillslivingbeingsandis

murderous, bloody-handed, given to blows and violence, merciless to living

beings.

6.“Buthere,student,somemanorwoman,abandoningthedestructionoflife,

abstains from the destruction of life; with rod and weapon laid aside,

conscientious,merciful,hedwellscompassionatetoalllivingbeings.Becauseof

performingandundertakingsuchaction,onthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,

heisreborninagooddestination,inaheavenlyworld.Butifonthebreakupof

thebody,afterdeath,heisnotreborninagooddestination,inaheavenlyworld,

butinsteadcomesbacktothehumanstate,thenwhereverheisrebornheislong-

lived.

Thisistheway,student,thatleadstolonglife,namely,abandoningthe

destructionoflife,oneabstainsfromthedestructionoflife;withrodandweapon

laid aside, conscientious, merciful, one dwells compassionate to all living

beings.

7.“Here,student, someman orwoman is givento injuringbeings with the

hand, with a clod, with a stick, or with a knife. Because of performing and

undertakingsuchaction,onthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,heisrebornina

state of misery.… But if instead he comes back to the human state, then

wherever he is reborn he is sickly. This is the way, student, that leads to

sickliness,namely,one is given to injuringbeings with the hand, witha clod,

withastick,orwithaknife.

8.“Buthere,student,somemanorwomanisnotgiventoinjuringbeingswith

thehand,withaclod,withastick,orwithaknife.Becauseofperformingand

undertakingsuchaction,onthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,heisrebornina

good destination.… But if instead he comes back to the human state, then

whereverheisrebornheishealthy.Thisistheway,student,thatleadstohealth,

namely, oneisnotgiven to injuringbeingswiththe hand, withaclod,with a

stick,orwithaknife.

9.“Here,student,somemanorwomanisofanangryandirritablecharacter;

even when criticized a little, he is offended, becomes angry, hostile, and

resentful, and displays anger, hate, and bitterness. Because of performing and

undertakingsuchaction...heisreborninastateofmisery.…Butifinsteadhe

comesbacktothehumanstate,thenwhereverheisrebornheisugly.Thisisthe

way, student, that leads to ugliness, namely, one is of an angry and irritable

character…anddisplaysanger,hate,andbitterness.

10.“Buthere,student,somemanorwomanisnotofanangryandirritable

character; even when criticized a little, he is not offended, does not become

angry, hostile, and resentful, and does not display anger, hate, and bitterness.

Because of performing and undertaking such action ... he is reborn in a good

destination....Butifinsteadhecomesbacktothehumanstate,thenwhereverhe

isrebornheisbeautiful.Thisistheway,student,thatleadstobeingbeautiful,

namely, one isnotofanangryand irritablecharacter … anddoesnotdisplay

anger,hate,andbitterness.

11.“Here,student,somemanorwomanisenvious,onewhoenvies,resents,

andbegrudges thegains, honor, respect,reverence, salutations,and veneration

receivedbyothers.Becauseofperformingandundertakingsuchaction…heis

reborninastateofmisery.…Butifinsteadhecomesbacktothehumanstate,

thenwhereverheisrebornheiswithoutinfluence.Thisistheway,student,that

leads to being without influence, namely, one is envious... toward the gains,

honor,respect,reverence,salutations,andvenerationreceivedbyothers.

12.“Buthere,student,somemanorwomanisnotenvious,onewhodoesnot

envy,resent,andbegrudgethegains,honor,respect,reverence,salutations,and

veneration received by others. Because of performing and undertaking such

action...heisreborninagooddestination.…Butifinsteadhecomesbacktothe

human state, then wherever he is reborn he is influential. This is the way,

student,thatleadstobeinginfluential,namely,oneisnotenvious...towardthe

gains,honor,respect,reverence,salutations,andvenerationreceivedbyothers.

13.“Here,student,somemanorwomandoesnotgivefood,drink,clothing,

carriages, garlands, scents, unguents, beds, dwelling, and lamps to ascetics or

brahmins.Becauseofperformingandundertakingsuchaction...heisrebornin

a state of misery.... But if instead he comes back to the human state, then

whereverheisrebornheispoor.Thisistheway,student,thatleadstopoverty,

namely,onedoesnotgivefood...andlampstoasceticsorbrahmins.

14. “But here, student, some man or woman gives food ... and lamps to

asceticsorbrahmins.Becauseofperformingandundertakingsuchaction...heis

reborninagooddestination....Butifinsteadhecomesbacktothehumanstate,

thenwhereverheisrebornheiswealthy.Thisistheway,student,thatleadsto

wealth,namely,onegivesfood...andlampstoasceticsorbrahmins.

15.“Here,student,somemanorwomanisobstinateandarrogant;hedoesnot

pay homage to one who should receive homage, does not rise up for one in

whosepresenceheshouldriseup,doesnotofferaseattoonewhodeservesa

seat,doesnotmakewayforoneforwhomheshouldmakeway,anddoesnot

honor, respect, revere, and venerate one who should be honored, respected,

revered,andvenerated.Becauseofperformingandundertakingsuchaction...he

isreborninastateofmisery.…Butifinsteadhecomesbacktothehumanstate,

thenwhereverheisrebornheislowborn.Thisistheway,student,thatleadsto

lowbirth,namely,oneisobstinateandarrogant...anddoesnothonor,respect,

revere, and venerate one who should be honored, respected, revered, and

venerated.

16.“Buthere,student,somemanorwomanisnotobstinateandarrogant;he

pays homage to one who should receive homage, rises up for one in whose

presenceheshouldriseup,offersaseattoonewhodeservesaseat,makesway

for one for whom he should make way, and honors, respects, reveres, and

venerates one who should be honored, respected, revered, and venerated.

Becauseofperforming andundertaking such action… heis rebornin a good

destination.…Butifinsteadhecomesbacktothehumanstate,thenwhereverhe

is reborn he is high born. This is the way, student, that leads to high birth,

namely,oneisnotobstinateandarrogant…andhonors,respects,reveres,and

veneratesonewhoshouldbehonored,respected,revered,andvenerated.

17.“Here,student,somemanorwomandoesnotvisitanasceticorabrahmin

and ask: ‘Venerable sir, what is wholesome? What is unwholesome? What is

blamable?Whatisblameless?Whatshouldbecultivated?Whatshouldnotbe

cultivated?Whatkindofactionwillleadtomyharmandsufferingforalong

time? What kind of action will lead to my welfare and happiness for a long

time?’Becauseofperformingandundertakingsuchaction…heisrebornina

state of misery.… But if instead he comes back to the human state, then

wherever he is reborn he is stupid. This is the way, student, that leads to

stupidity, namely, one does not visit an ascetic or brahmin and ask such

questions.

18.“Buthere,student,somemanorwomanvisitsanasceticorabrahminand

asks:‘Venerablesir,whatiswholesome?…Whatkindofactionwillleadtomy

welfareandhappinessforalongtime?’Becauseofperformingandundertaking

suchaction…heisreborninagooddestination.…Butifinsteadhecomesback

to the human state, then wherever he is reborn he is wise. This is the way,

student,thatleadstowisdom,namely,onevisitsanasceticorbrahminandasks

suchquestions.

19.“Thus,student,thewaythatleadstoshortlifemakespeopleshort-lived,

theway that leadsto long lifemakes people long-lived;the way thatleads to

sickliness makes people sickly, the way that leads to health makes people

healthy;thewaythatleadstouglinessmakespeopleugly,thewaythatleadsto

beautymakespeoplebeautiful;thewaythatleadstobeinguninfluentialmakes

people uninfluential, the way that leads to being influential makes people

influential;thewaythatleadstopovertymakespeoplepoor,thewaythatleads

towealthmakespeoplewealthy;thewaythatleadstolowbirthmakespeople

lowborn,thewaythatleadstohighbirthmakespeoplehighborn;thewaythat

leads to stupidity makes people stupid, the way that leads to wisdom makes

peoplewise.

20.“Beingsareownersoftheiractions,heirsoftheiractions;theyoriginate

fromtheiractions,areboundtotheiractions,havetheiractionsastheirrefuge.It

isactionthatdistinguishesbeingsasinferiorandsuperior.”

21.Whenthiswassaid,thebrahminstudentSubha,Todeyya’sson,saidtothe

BlessedOne:“Magnificent,MasterGotama!Magnificent,MasterGotama!…[as

inprecedingtext]…LetMasterGotamaacceptmeasalayfollowerwhohas

goneforrefugefromtodayuntillife’send.”

(MN135:CūḷakammavibhaṅgaSutta;III202–6)

2.MERIT:THEKEYTOGOODFORTUNE

(1)MeritoriousDeeds

“Monks, do not fear meritorious deeds. This is an expression denoting

happiness,whatisdesirable,wishedfor,dear,andagreeable,thatis,meritorious

deeds.ForIknowfullwell,monks,thatforalongtimeIexperienceddesirable,

wishedfor,dear,andagreeableresultsfromoftenperformingmeritoriousdeeds.

“Havingcultivatedforsevenyearsamindofloving-kindness,forseveneons

ofcontractionandexpansionIdidnotreturntothisworld.Whenevertheeon

contracted I reached the plane of streaming radiance, and when the eon

expandedIaroseinanemptydivinemansion.AndthereIwasBrahmā,thegreat

Brahmā, the unvanquished victor, the all-seeing, the all-powerful. Thirty-six

times I was Sakka, ruler of the devas. And many hundreds of times I was a

wheel-turningmonarch,righteous,akingofrighteousness,conquerorofthefour

regionsoftheearth,maintainingstabilityintheland,inpossessionoftheseven

treasures.Whatneedistheretospeakofmerelocalkingship?

“Itoccurredtome,monks,towonder:‘Ofwhatkindofdeedofmineisthis

thefruit?Ofwhatdeed’sripeningamInowofsuchgreataccomplishmentand

power?’And thenitoccurred to me:‘Itis thefruitof threekindsof deeds of

mine, the ripening of three kinds of deeds that I am now of such great

accomplishmentandpower:deedsofgiving,ofself-mastery,andofrefraining.’”

(It22;14–15)

(2)ThreeBasesofMerit

“Thereare,Omonks,threewaysofmakingmerit.Whatthree?Thereareways

of making merit by giving, by moral discipline, and by the development of

meditation.

“Thereisapersonwhohaspracticedthemakingofmeritbygivingonlytoa

limiteddegree;and,likewisetoalimiteddegree,hehaspracticedthemakingof

merit by moral discipline; but he has not undertaken the making of merit by

meditation.Withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,hewillberebornamong

humansinanunfavorablecondition.

“Anotherperson has practiced the making of merit by giving as wellas by

moraldisciplinetoahighdegree;buthehasnotundertakenthemakingofmerit

by meditation. With the breakup of the body, after death, he will be reborn

amonghumansinafavorablecondition.

“OrhewillbereborninthecompanyofthedevasoftheFourGreatKings.

Andthere,theFourGreatKings,whohadpracticedtoaveryhighdegreethe

makingof meritby giving andby moral discipline, surpass thedevas of their

realmintenrespects:indivinelifespan,divinebeauty,divinehappiness,divine

fame,divinepower;andindivinesights,sounds,smells,tastes,andtouches.

“Or he will be reborn in the company of the Tāvatiṃsa devas.And there,

Sakka,rulerofthedevas,whohadpracticedthemakingofmeritbygivingand

bymoraldisciplinetoaveryhighdegree,surpassesthedevasoftheirrealmin

ten respects: in divine lifespan, divine beauty, divine happiness, divine fame,

divinepower;andindivinesights,sounds,smells,tastes,andtouches.

[SimilarstatementsaremadeforrebirthamongtheYāmadevas,Tusitadevas,

the devas who delight in creating, the devas who wield power over others’

creations,andfortherespectiverulersoftheserealms.]

“These,monks,arethethreewaysofmakingmerit.”

(AN8:36;IV241–43)

(3)TheBestKindsofConfidence

“Monks,therearethesefourbestkindsofconfidence.Whatfour?

“Towhateverextenttherearebeings,whetherfootlessorwithtwofeet,four

feet,or many feet,whether having formor formless, whetherpercipient, non-

percipient,orneitherpercipientnornon-percipient,theTathāgata,theArahant,

thePerfectlyEnlightenedOneisdeclaredthebestamongthem.Thosewhohave

confidenceintheBuddhahaveconfidenceinthebest,andforthosewhohave

confidenceinthebest,theresultisbest.

“Towhateverextenttherearethingsthatareconditioned,theNobleEightfold

Pathisdeclaredthebestamongthem.ThosewhohaveconfidenceintheNoble

EightfoldPathhaveconfidenceinthebest,andforthosewhohaveconfidencein

thebest,theresultisbest.

“To whatever extent there are things whether conditioned or unconditioned,

dispassionis declared the best among them, that is, the crushing of pride, the

removalofthirst,theuprootingofattachment,theterminationoftheround,the

destruction of craving, dispassion, cessation, Nibbāna. Those who have

confidenceintheDhammahaveconfidenceinthebest,andforthosewhohave

confidenceinthebest,theresultisbest.

“Towhateverextenttherearecommunitiesorgroups,theTathāgata’sSaṅgha

ofdisciplesisdeclaredthebestamongthem,thatis,thefourpairsofpersons,

the eight types of individuals—this Saṅgha of the Blessed One’s disciples is

worthyofgifts,worthyofhospitality,worthyofofferings,worthyofreverential

salutation, the unsurpassed field of merit for the world. Those who have

confidenceintheSaṅghahaveconfidenceinthebest,andforthosewhohave

confidenceinthebest,theresultisbest.”

Forthosewhohaveconfidenceasthebest,

ForthosewhounderstandthebestDhamma,

ForthosewhohaveconfidenceintheBuddha,

Theunsurpassedoneworthyofofferings;

ForthosewhohaveconfidenceintheDhamma,

Inblissfuldispassion,perfectpeace;

ForthosewhohaveconfidenceintheSaṅgha,

Thefieldofmeritunsurpassed;

Forthosegivinggiftstothebest,

Thebestkindofmeritincreases:

Thebestlifespan,beauty,andfame,

Goodreputation,happiness,andstrength.

Whetherhebecomesadevaorahumanbeing,

Thewiseonewhogivesofthebest,

ConcentrateduponthebestDhamma,

Rejoiceswhenhehasattainedtothebest.

(AN4:34;II34–35)

3.GIVING

(1)IfPeopleKnewtheResultofGiving

“O monks, if people knew, as I know, the result of giving and sharing, they

would not eat without having given, nor would they allow the stain of

niggardlinesstoobsessthemandtakerootintheirminds.Evenifitweretheir

lastmorsel,theirlastmouthful,theywouldnoteatwithouthavingsharedit,if

thereweresomeonetoshareitwith.But,monks,aspeopledonotknow,asI

know, the resultofgivingandsharing,theyeatwithouthavinggiven,andthe

stainofniggardlinessobsessesthemandtakesrootintheirminds.”

(It26;18–19)

(2)ReasonsforGiving

“Thereare,Omonks,eightreasonsforgiving.Whateight?Peoplemaygiveout

ofaffection;orinanangrymood;oroutofstupidity;oroutoffear;orwiththe

thought:‘Suchgiftshavebeengivenbeforebymyfatherandgrandfatherandit

wasdonebythembefore;henceitwouldbeunworthyofmetogiveupthisold

familytradition’;orwiththethought,‘Bygivingthisgift,Ishallberebornina

gooddestination,inaheavenlyworld,afterdeath’;orwiththethought,‘When

givingthisgift,myheartwillbeglad,andhappinessandjoywillariseinme’;or

onegivesbecauseitennoblesandadornsthemind.”

(AN8:33;IV236–37)

(3)TheGiftofFood

OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingamongtheKoliyans,atatown

calledSajjanela.OnemorningtheBlessedOnedressed,tookhisupperrobeand

bowl, and went to the dwelling of Suppavāsā, a Koliyan lady. Having arrived

there,he satdown on theseat prepared for him.The Koliyan lady Suppavāsā

attended to the Blessed One personally and served him with various kinds of

deliciousfood.WhentheBlessedOnehadfinishedhismealandhadwithdrawn

hishandfromthebowl,theKoliyanladySuppavāsāsatdowntooneside,and

theBlessedOneaddressedherasfollows:

“Suppavāsā,anoblefemaledisciple,bygivingfood,givesfourthingstothose

whoreceiveit.Whatfour?Shegiveslonglife,beauty,happiness,andstrength.

Bygivinglonglife,sheherselfwillbeendowedwithlonglife,humanordivine.

Bygivingbeauty,sheherselfwillbeendowedwithbeauty,humanordivine.By

givinghappiness,sheherselfwillbeendowedwithhappiness,humanordivine.

Bygivingstrength,sheherselfwillbeendowedwithstrength,humanordivine.

Anoble femaledisciple, by givingfood, gives those four thingsto those who

receiveit.”

(AN4:57;II62–63)

(4)ASuperiorPerson’sGifts

“Thereare,Omonks,thesefivegiftsofasuperiorperson.Whatfive?

“Hegivesagiftoutoffaith;hegivesagiftrespectfully;hegivesagiftatthe

right time; he gives a gift with a generous heart; he gives a gift without

denigration.

“Becausehegivesagiftoutoffaith,wherevertheresultofthatgiftripenshe

becomes rich, affluent, and wealthy, and he is handsome, comely, graceful,

endowedwithsupremebeautyofcomplexion.

“Becausehegivesagiftrespectfully,wherevertheresultofthatgiftripenshe

becomes rich, affluent, and wealthy, and his children and wives, his slaves,

messengers, and workers are obedient, lend their ears to him, and apply their

mindstounderstandhim.

“Because he gives a gift at the right time, wherever the result of that gift

ripenshebecomesrich,affluent,andwealthy,andbenefitscometohimatthe

righttime,inabundantmeasure.

“Becausehegivesagiftwithagenerousheart,wherevertheresultofthatgift

ripens he becomes rich, affluent, and wealthy, and his mind inclines to the

enjoymentofexcellentthingsamongthefivecordsofsensualpleasure.

“Becausehegivesagiftwithoutdenigratinghimselfandothers,whereverthe

resultofthatgiftripenshebecomesrich,affluent,andwealthy,andnolossof

his wealth takes place from any quarter, whether from fire, floods, the king,

bandits,orunlovedheirs.

“These,monks,arethefivegiftsofasuperiorperson.”

(AN5:148;III172–73)

(5)MutualSupport

“Monks,brahminsandhouseholdersareveryhelpfultoyou.Theyprovideyou

with the requisites of robes, almsfood, lodgings, and medicines in time of

sickness. And you, monks, are very helpful to brahmins and householders, as

youteachthemtheDhammathatisgoodinthebeginning,themiddle,andthe

end,withthecorrectmeaningandwording,andyouproclaimthespirituallifein

itsfulfillmentandcompletepurity.Thus,monks,thisspirituallifeislivedwith

mutualsupportforthepurposeofcrossingthefloodandmakingacompleteend

ofsuffering.”

(It107;111)

(6)RebirthonAccountofGiving

“Thereare,Omonks,eightkindsofrebirthonaccountofgiving.Whateight?

“Here, monks, a certain person makes a gift to an ascetic or a brahmin,

offeringhimfood,drink,clothing,andvehicles;garlands,scents,andunguents;

bedding, lodging, and lighting. In making the gift, he hopes for a reward. He

now notices affluent nobles, brahmins, or householders enjoying themselves

providedandfurnishedwiththefiveobjectsofsensualpleasure,andhethinks:

‘Oh,withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,mayIberebornamongthem!’

And he sets his mind on that thought, keeps to it firmly, and fosters it. This

thoughtofhisaimsatwhatislow,andifnotdevelopedtowhatishigheritwill

leadhimtojustsucharebirth.Withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,hewill

be reborn among affluentnobles, brahmins, or householders. This,however, I

declareonlyforthemorallypure,notfortheimmoral;foritisduetohispurity,

monks,thattheheart’sdesireofthemorallypuresucceeds.

“Thenagain,acertainpersonmakesagifttoanasceticorabrahmin,offering

himfood...orlighting.Inmakingthegift,hehopesforareward.Henowhears

ofthelonglife,thebeauty,andthegreathappinessofthedevasintherealmof

theFourGreatKings...theTāvatiṃsadevas…theYāmadevas…theTusita

devas…thedevaswhodelightincreating…thedevaswhowieldpowerover

others’creations,andhewishestoberebornamongthem.Hesetshismindon

thatthought,keepstoitfirmly,andfostersit.Thisthoughtofhisaimsatwhatis

low,andifnotdevelopedtowhatishigher,itwillleadhimtojustsucharebirth.

Afterhisdeath,whenhisbodybreaksup,hewillberebornamongthedevasin

therealmoftheFourGreatKings...oramongthedevaswhowieldpowerover

others’creations.This,however,Ideclareonlyforthemorallypure,notforthe

immoral;foritisduetohispurity,monks,thattheheart’sdesireofthemorally

puresucceeds.

“Thenagain,acertainpersonmakesagifttoanasceticorabrahmin,offering

himfood...orlighting.Henowhearsofthelonglife,thebeauty,andthegreat

happinessofthedevasofBrahmā’scompany,andhewishestoberebornamong

them.Hesetshismindonthatthought,keepstoitfirmly,andfostersit.This

thoughtofhisaimsatwhatislow,andifnotdevelopedtowhatishigher,itwill

leadhimtojustsucharebirth.Afterhisdeath,whenhisbodybreaksup,hewill

berebornamongthedevasofBrahmā’scompany.This,however,Ideclareonly

forthemorallypure,notfortheimmoral;onlyforonefreeoflust,notforone

who is lustful.

 Because he is without lust, monks, the heart’s desire of the

morallypuresucceeds.

“These,monks,aretheeightkindsofrebirthonaccountofgiving.”

(AN8:35;IV239–41)

4.MORALDISCIPLINE

(1)TheFivePrecepts

“There are, O monks, eight streams of merit, streams of the wholesome,

nourishmentsofhappiness,thatareheavenly,ripeninginhappiness,conducive

toheaven,andthatleadtowhateveriswishedfor,loved,andagreeable,toone’s

welfareandhappiness.Whataretheeight?“Here,monks,anobledisciplehas

goneforrefugetotheBuddha.

This is the first stream of merit, stream of the wholesome, nourishment of

happiness,thatisheavenly,ripeninginhappiness,conducivetoheaven,andthat

leads to whatever is wished for, loved, and agreeable, to one’s welfare and

happiness.

“Further, a noble disciple has gone for refuge to the Dhamma. This is the

second stream of merit ... that leads to whatever is wished for, loved, and

agreeable,toone’swelfareandhappiness.

“Further,anobledisciplehasgoneforrefugetotheSaṅgha.Thisisthethird

streamofmerit...thatleadstowhateveriswishedfor,loved,andagreeable,to

one’swelfareandhappiness.

“There are further, monks, these five gifts—pristine, of long standing,

traditional, ancient, unadulterated and never before adulterated, that are not

beingadulteratedandthatwillnotbeadulterated,notdespisedbywiseascetics

andbrahmins.Whatarethesefivegifts?

“Here,monks, anoble disciplegives upthe destructionof lifeand abstains

fromit. By abstaining from thedestruction of life, the noble disciple gives to

immeasurablebeingsfreedomfromfear,hostility,andoppression.Bygivingto

immeasurable beings freedom from fear, hostility, and oppression, he himself

willenjoyimmeasurablefreedomfromfear,hostility,andoppression.Thisisthe

firstofthosegreatgiftsandthefourthstreamofmerit.

“Further,monks,anobledisciplegivesupthetakingofwhatisnotgivenand

abstainsfromit.Byabstainingfromtakingwhatisnotgiven,thenobledisciple

givestoimmeasurablebeingsfreedomfromfear.…Thisisthesecondofthose

greatgiftsandthefifthstreamofmerit.

“Further, monks, a noble disciple gives up sexual misconduct and abstains

from it. By abstaining from sexual misconduct, the noble disciple gives to

immeasurablebeingsfreedomfromfear.…Thisisthethirdofthosegreatgifts

andthesixthstreamofmerit.

“Further,monks,anobledisciplegivesupfalsespeechandabstainsfromit.

Byabstainingfromfalsespeech,thenobledisciplegivestoimmeasurablebeings

freedom from fear.… This is the fourth of those great gifts and the seventh

streamofmerit.

“Further,monks,anobledisciplegivesupwines,liquors,andintoxicants,the

basisfornegligence,andabstainsfromthem.Byabstainingfromwines,liquors,

andintoxicants,thenobledisciplegivestoimmeasurablebeingsfreedomfrom

fear,hostility,andoppression.Bygivingtoimmeasurablebeingsfreedomfrom

fear,hostility,andoppression,hehimselfwillenjoyimmeasurablefreedomfrom

fear,hostility,andoppression.Thisisthefifthofthosegreatgiftsandtheeighth

streamofmerit.

“These, monks, are the eight streams of merit, streams of the wholesome,

nourishments of happiness, which are heavenly, ripening in happiness,

conducive to heaven, and which lead to whatever is wished for, loved, and

agreeable,toone’swelfareandhappiness.”

(AN8:39;IV245–47)

(2)TheUposathaObservance

“When,Omonks,theuposathaobservanceiscompleteineightfactors,itisof

great fruit and benefit, luminous and pervasive. And how is the uposatha

observancecompleteineightfactors?

“Here,monks,anobledisciplereflectsthus:‘Aslongastheylivethearahants

abandonthedestructionoflife,abstainfromthedestructionoflife;withtherod

and weapon laid aside, they are conscientious and merciful and dwell

compassionatetowardalllivingbeings.TodayItoo,forthisdayandnight,will

do likewise. I will imitate the arahants in this respect, and the uposatha

observancewillbefulfilledbyme.’Thisisthefirstfactoritpossesses.

“Further,hereflects:‘Aslongastheylivethearahantsabandonthetakingof

whatisnotgiven,abstainfromtakingwhatisnotgiven;theyacceptonlywhatis

given,expectonlywhatisgiven,anddwellwithhonestheartsdevoidoftheft.

TodayItoo,forthisdayandnight,willdolikewise.…’Thisisthesecondfactor

itpossesses.

“‘As long as they live the arahants abandon sexual relations and observe

celibacy,livingapart,refrainingfromthecoarsepracticeofsexualintercourse.

TodayItoo,forthisdayandnight,willdolikewise.…’Thisisthethirdfactorit

possesses.

“‘Aslongastheylivethearahantsabandonfalsespeech,abstainfromfalse

speech;theyarespeakersoftruth,adherentsoftruth,trustworthyandreliable,no

deceiversoftheworld.TodayItoo,forthisdayandnight,willdolikewise.…’

Thisisthefourthfactoritpossesses.

“‘Aslongas theylive thearahants abandonwines, liquors, andintoxicants,

the basis of negligence, and abstain from them. Today I too, for this day and

night,willdolikewise.…’Thisisthefifthfactoritpossesses.

“‘Aslongastheylivethearahantseatonlyonemealadayandrefrainfrom

eatingatnight,outsidethepropertime.

TodayItoo,forthisdayandnight,will

dolikewise.…’Thisisthesixthfactoritpossesses.

“‘Aslongastheylivethearahantsabstainfromdancing,singing,instrumental

music,andunsuitableshows,andfromadorningthemselvesbywearinggarlands

andapplyingscentsandointments.TodayItoo,forthisdayandnight,willdo

likewise.…’Thisistheseventhfactoritpossesses.

“‘Aslongastheylivethearahantsabandontheuseofhighandluxuriousbeds

and seats and abstain from using them; they make use of low resting places,

either small beds or straw mats. Today I too, for this day and night, will do

likewise.Iwillimitatethearahantsinthisrespect,andtheuposathaobservance

willbefulfilledbyme.’Thisistheeighthfactoritpossesses.

“When,monks,theuposathaobservanceiscompleteintheseeightfactors,it

isofgreatfruitandbenefit,luminousandpervasive.Andtowhatextentisitof

greatfruitandbenefit,luminousandpervasive?

“Suppose,monks,someoneweretoexercisesovereigntyanddominionover

thesesixteengreatcountriesaboundinginthesevenprecioustreasures,thatis,

Aṅga, Magadha, Kāsi, Kosala, the Vajjis, the Mallas, the Cetis, Vaṃsa, the

Kurus,thePañcālas,Maccha,Sūrasena,Assaka,

Avantī,Gandhāra,andKamboja:

thiswouldnotbeworthasixteenthpartof

the uposatha observance complete in those eight factors. For what reason?

Becausehumankingshipispoorcomparedtodivinehappiness.

“ForthedevasintherealmoftheFourGreatKingsasingledayandnightis

equivalenttofiftyhumanyears;thirtysuchdaysmakeupamonth,andtwelve

suchmonthsmakeupayear.ThelifespanofthedevasintherealmoftheFour

Great Kings is five hundred such celestial years. It is possible, monks, that if

somemanorwomanhereobservestheuposathacompleteintheseeightfactors,

withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,theywillbereborninthecompanyof

thedevasintherealmoftheFourGreatKings.Itwaswithreferencetothisthat

Isaidhumankingshipispoorcomparedtodivinehappiness.

“FortheTāvatiṃsadevasa single dayand nightis equivalenttoa hundred

humanyears.…ThelifespanoftheTāvatiṃsadevasisathousandsuchcelestial

years….FortheYāmadevasasingledayandnightisequivalenttotwohundred

humanyears.…ThelifespanoftheYāmadevasistwothousandsuchcelestial

years…. For the Tusita devas, a single day and night is equivalent to four

hundredhumanyears.…ThelifespanoftheTusitadevasisfourthousandsuch

celestialyears….Forthedevaswhodelightincreating,asingledayandnightis

equivalent to eight hundred human years.… The lifespan of the devas who

delightincreatingiseightthousandsuchcelestialyears….Forthedevaswho

wieldpoweroverothers’creationsasingledayandnightisequivalenttosixteen

hundred human years; thirty such days make up a month, and twelve such

monthsmakeupayear.Thelifespanofthedevaswhowieldpoweroverothers’

creationsissixteenthousandcelestialyears.Itispossible,monks,thatifsome

manorwomanhereobservestheuposathacompleteintheseeightfactors,with

thebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,theywillbereborninthecompanyofthe

devaswhowieldpoweroverothers’creations.ItwaswithreferencetothisthatI

saidhumankingshipispoorcomparedtodivinehappiness.”

(AN8:41;IV248–51)

5.MEDITATION

(1)TheDevelopmentofLoving-Kindness

“Monks, whatever grounds there are for making merit productive of a future

birth,allthesedonotequalasixteenthpartoftheliberationofmindbyloving-

kindness.Theliberationofmindbyloving-kindnesssurpassesthemandshines

forth,brightandbrilliant.

“Just as the radiance of all the stars does not equal a sixteenth part of the

moon’sradiance,butthemoon’sradiancesurpassesthemandshinesforth,bright

andbrilliant,evenso,whatevergroundsthereareformakingmeritproductiveof

afuturebirth,allthesedonotequalasixteenthpartoftheliberationofmindby

loving-kindness.Theliberationofmindbyloving-kindnesssurpassesthemand

shinesforth,brightandbrilliant.

“Justasinthelastmonthoftherainyseason,intheautumn,whentheskyis

clearandfreeofclouds,thesun,onascending,dispelsthedarknessofspaceand

shinesforth,brightandbrilliant,evenso,whatevergroundsthereareformaking

meritproductiveofafuturebirth,allthesedonotequalasixteenthpartofthe

liberation of mind by loving-kindness. The liberation of mind by loving-

kindnesssurpassesthemandshinesforth,brightandbrilliant.

“And just as in the night, at the moment of dawn, the morning star shines

forth,brightandbrilliant,evenso,whatevergroundsthereareformakingmerit

productive of a future birth, all these do not equal a sixteenth part of the

liberation of mind by loving-kindness. The liberation of mind by loving-

kindnesssurpassesthemandshinesforth,brightandbrilliant.”

(It27;19–21)

(2)TheFourDivineAbodes

22.ThebrahminstudentSubha,Todeyya’sson,saidtotheBlessedOne:“Master

Gotama,IhaveheardthattheasceticGotamaknowsthepathtothecompanyof

Brahmā.”

“Whatdoyouthink,student?IsthevillageofNaḷakāranearhere,notfarfrom

here?”

“Yes,sir,thevillageofNaḷakāraisnearhere,notfarfromhere.”

“Whatdoyouthink,student?Supposetherewasamanbornandraisedinthe

villageofNaḷakāra,andassoonashehadleftNaḷakāratheyaskedhimaboutthe

pathtothevillage.Wouldthatmanbesloworhesitantinanswering?”

“No,MasterGotama.Whyisthat?Becausethatmanhasbeenbornandraised

inNaḷakāra,andiswellacquaintedwithallthepathstothevillage.”

“Still, a man born and raised in the village of Naḷakāra might be slow or

hesitantinansweringwhenaskedaboutthepathtothevillage,butaTathāgata,

whenasked about the brahma world or the way leading to the brahmaworld,

would never be slow or hesitant in answering. I understand Brahmā, and I

understandthebrahmaworld,andIunderstandthewayleadingtothebrahma

world, and I understand how one should practice to be reborn in the brahma

world.”

23.“MasterGotama,IhaveheardthattheasceticGotamateachesthepathto

thecompanyofBrahmā.ItwouldbegoodifMasterGotamawouldteachmethe

pathtothecompanyofBrahmā.”

“Then,student,listenandattendcloselytowhatIshallsay.”

“Yes,sir,”hereplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:

24. “What, student, is the path to the company of Brahmā? Here a monk

dwellspervadingonequarterwithamindimbuedwithloving-kindness,likewise

thesecond,likewisethethird,likewisethefourth;soabove,below,around,and

everywhere,andtoallastohimself,hedwellspervadingtheall-encompassing

world with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, abundant, exalted,

immeasurable, without hostility, and without ill will. When the liberation of

mind by loving-kindness is developed in this way, no limiting action remains

there,nonepersiststhere.Justasavigoroustrumpetercouldmakehimselfheard

without difficulty in thefour quarters, so too, when theliberation of mind by

loving-kindnessisdevelopedinthisway,nolimitingactionremainsthere,none

persiststhere.

ThisisthepathtothecompanyofBrahmā.

25–27. “Again, a monk dwells pervading one quarter with a mind imbued

with compassion … with a mind imbued with altruistic joy … with a mind

imbued with equanimity, likewise the second, likewise the third, likewise the

fourth; so above, below, around, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he

dwells pervading the all-encompassing world with a mind imbued with

equanimity, abundant, exalted,immeasurable, withouthostility,and without ill

will.When the liberation of mindby equanimity is developed in this way, no

limitingactionremainsthere,nonepersiststhere.Justasavigorous trumpeter

couldmakehimselfheardwithoutdifficultyinthefourquarters,sotoo,when

theliberationofmindbyequanimityisdevelopedinthisway,nolimitingaction

remains there, none persists there. This too is the path to the company of

Brahmā.”

(fromMN99:SubhaSutta;II206–8)

(3)InsightSurpassesAll

[TheBuddha said toAnāthapiṇḍika:] “Inthe past, householder,there was a

brahminnamedVelāma.Hegavesuchagreatalmsofferingasthis:eighty-four

thousandbowlsofgoldfilledwithsilver;eighty-fourthousandbowlsofsilver

filledwithgold;eighty-fourthousandbronzebowlsfilledwithbullion;eighty-

four thousand elephants, chariots, milch cows, maidens, and couches, many

millionsoffinecloths,andindescribableamountsoffood,drink,ointment,and

bedding.

“AsgreataswasthealmsofferingthatthebrahminVelāmagave,itwouldbe

evenmorefruitfulifonewouldfeedasinglepersonpossessedofrightview.

AsgreatasthebrahminVelāma’salmsofferingwas,andthoughonewouldfeed

ahundredpersonspossessedofrightview,itwouldbeevenmorefruitfulifone

would feed a single once-returner. As great as the brahmin Velāma’s alms

offeringwas,andthoughonewouldfeedahundredonce-returners,itwouldbe

even more fruitful if one would feed a single nonreturner. As great as the

brahmin Velāma’s alms offering was, and though one would feed a hundred

nonreturners,itwouldbeevenmorefruitfulifonewouldfeedasinglearahant.

AsgreatasthebrahminVelāma’salmsofferingwas,andthoughonewouldfeed

ahundred arahants,it wouldbe evenmore fruitfulif one would feeda single

paccekabuddha.

 As great as the brahmin Velāma’s alms offering was, and

though one would feed a hundred paccekabuddhas, it would be even more

fruitfulifonewouldfeedasinglePerfectlyEnlightenedBuddha...itwouldbe

evenmorefruitfulifonewouldfeedtheSaṅghaofmonksheadedbytheBuddha

andbuildamonasteryforthesakeoftheSaṅghaofthefourquarters…itwould

beevenmore fruitfulif, with atrusting mind,onewould gofor refugeto the

Buddha,theDhamma,andtheSaṅgha,andwouldundertakethefiveprecepts:

abstaining from the destruction of life, from taking what is not given, from

sexualmisconduct,fromfalsespeech,andfromtheuseofintoxicants.Asgreat

asallthismightbe,itwouldbeevenmorefruitfulifonewoulddevelopamind

ofloving-kindnessevenforthetimeittakestopullacow’sudder.Andasgreat

asallthismightbe,itwouldbeevenmorefruitfulstillifonewoulddevelopthe

perceptionofimpermanencejustforthetimeittakestosnapone’sfingers.”

(AN9:20,abridged;IV393–96)

VI.DeepeningOne’sPerspectiveontheWorld

INTRODUCTION

In interpreting suttas, we have to take account of the circumstances under

whichtheywerespokenandthepersonstowhomtheywereaddressed.During

thecourseofhislongministry,theBuddhahadtoadjusthisteachingtopeople

withdifferentcapacitiesandneeds.Hetaughtthosegiventorecklessbehaviorto

abandontheirself-defeatingways andengagein wholesomeactionsthatyield

pleasantfruits.Hetaughtthoseinclinedtoresignthemselvestofatethatpresent

effort determines our present quality of life as well as our future destiny. He

taught those convinced that personal existence ceases with bodily death that

livingbeings survive the breakup of the body and re-arise in accordance with

their kamma. He taught those not yet ripe enough for higher attainments to

aspireforrebirthamongthedevas,thecelestialbeings,andtoenjoytheblissand

gloryoftheheavens.

A blissful heavenly rebirth, however, is not the final purpose for which the

Buddha taught the Dhamma. At best it is only a temporary waystation. The

ultimategoalisthecessationofsuffering,andtheblissoftheheavens,nomatter

how blissful, is not the same as the cessation of suffering. According to the

Buddha’steaching,allstatesofexistencewithintheroundofrebirths,eventhe

heavens,aretransient,unreliable,boundupwithpain.Thustheultimateaimof

theDhammaisnothingshortofliberation,whichmeanstotalreleasefromthe

roundofbirthanddeath.

What lies beyond the round of rebirths is an unconditioned state called

Nibbāna.Nibbānatranscendstheconditionedworld,yetitcanbeattainedwithin

conditioned existence, in this very life, and experienced as the extinction of

suffering.TheBuddharealizedNibbānathroughhisenlightenment,andforthe

next forty-five years of his life he endeavored to help others realize it for

themselves.TherealizationofNibbānacomeswiththeblossomingofwisdom

andbrings perfect peace,untarnished happiness,and the stillingof themind’s

compulsivedrives.Nibbānaisthedestructionofthirst,thethirstofcraving.Itis

alsotheislandofsafetyamidtheragingcurrentsofoldage,sickness,anddeath.

ToguidehisspirituallymaturedisciplestowardNibbāna,theBuddhahadto

steer them beyond the blissful rewards that could be won in a future life by

performingwholesomedeeds.Hedidsothroughthe“world-transcending”facets

of his teaching, those aspects designed to lead disciples beyond the “triple

world”ofsense-sphereexistence,form-sphereexistence,andformlessexistence.

Again and again throughout the discourses, the Buddha offered an

uncompromising,razor-sharpexposureofthedangersinherentinallconditioned

statesofbeing.Hesoundedaclearwarningsignalthatallstatesofexistenceare

perilousandfraughtwithpain.Heinsisted,unambiguously,thattheonehopeof

lasting security lies in complete purification and liberation of the mind. He

presented a path that cuts through ignorance and craving in their entirety and

dispelsattachmenteventothemostrefinedstatesofmeditativeabsorption.

In his “graduated discourse on the Dhamma,” given to introduce receptive

newcomers to his teaching, the Buddha regularly began by discussing such

practices as giving and moral discipline. He would extol the beauty of such

virtuesas generosity,harmlessness, honesty, and self-restraint,explaining how

suchmeritoriousdeedsleadtothejoysofaheavenlyrebirth.Atthispoint,he

wouldreveal“thedanger,degradation,anddefilementinsensualpleasuresand

theblessingsofrenunciation.”Havingthusgradually“ripened”themindsofhis

audience,hewouldnextexpoundthedoctrinedistinctiveofhisownteaching,

theFourNobleTruths:suffering,itsorigin,itscessation,andthepath.Whenthe

BuddhahimselftaughttheFourNobleTruths,hispurposewasnottogivehis

listenersanintroductorycoursein“basicBuddhism,”buttoawakeninthemthe

“visionoftheDhamma,”thefirstdirectrealizationofthetranscendenttruththat

setsthediscipleontheirreversiblepathtoliberation.

Though we sometimes read in the suttas that disciples attained their first

experienceofawakeningmerelybylisteningtotheBuddhapreach,thisdoesnot

meanthattheDhammaiseasytounderstand.Suchdisciplescouldpenetratethe

truthwithsuchapparenteasebecause theirfacultiesweremature,perhapstoo

because they had accumulated sufficient supporting conditions from previous

lives.Butbyitsverynature,theworld-transcendingDhammagoesagainstthe

grainofthemundanemind.TheBuddhadescribestheDhammaas“subtle,deep,

anddifficulttosee,”andoneofthethingsthatmakesitsodifficulttoseeisits

thesisthatthehighesthappinesscannotbewonbyyieldingtothelongingsofthe

heartbutonlybysubduingthem.Thisthesisrunsutterlycountertothethought,

attitudes,andactionsofpeoplefullyimmersedintheworld.Aslongasweare

infatuated with the seductive lures of sensual enjoyment, as long as we take

delightinbeingthisorbecomingthat,wewillregardthesublimeDhammaasa

mystery and a puzzle. The Buddha therefore realized that the first major

challengehewouldfaceinestablishinghisworld-transcendingDhammawasto

breakthegripthatsensualpleasureandworldlyattachmenthaveuponthemind.

He had to knock the mind out of its accustomed ruts and setit moving in an

altogetherdifferentdirection.Hehadtosteerhisdisciplesawayfromtheluresof

sensuality and worldly attachment and guide them toward disenchantment,

completedispassion,andawakening.

TherequirementsofthistaskdrewuponalltheBuddha’sskillsasateacher.It

demandedthathemakeampleuseofhisabilitytopreciselyadjusthisteaching

to the mental proclivities of the people who came to him for instruction. It

demanded that he speak up frankly and candidly, even when candor bred

resentment.Itdemandedthatheenterthefrayofdebate,eventhoughhemuch

preferredthepeaceofseclusion.Itdemandedthatheusesimiles,metaphors,and

parables whenever concrete illustrations could give his arguments stronger

appeal. It demanded that he uphold his principles strongly whether his

adversarieswerehostileasceticsormiscreantmonkswithintheranksofhisown

order (see the opening sections of MN 22 and MN 38, not included in this

anthology).ThattheBuddhasucceededsowellinfulfillingthisdifficulttaskis

countedamonghis truly wonderfulandmarvelous accomplishments.Thisisa

pointtowhichTextVI,1bearseloquenttestimony.

TheBuddha’staskatthisstageintheunfoldingofhisdoctrineistoimpartto

usaradicallyneweducationintheartofseeing.TofollowtheBuddhainthe

directionhewantstoleadus,wehavetolearntoseebeneaththesurfaceglitter

ofpleasure,position,andpowerthatusuallyenthrallsus,andatthesametime,

to learn to see through the deceptive distortions of perception, thought, and

views that habitually cloak our vision. Ordinarily, we represent things to

ourselves through the refractory prism of subjective biases. These biases are

shaped by our craving and attachments, which they in turn reinforce. We see

thingsthat we wantto see; we blot out things thatthreaten or disturbus, that

shake our complacency, that throw into question our comforting assumptions

aboutourselvesandourlives.Toundothisprocessinvolvesacommitmentto

truth that is often unsettling, but in the long run proves exhilarating and

liberating.

TheeducationthattheBuddhaimpartstousbringsaboutadeepeningofour

perspectiveontheworld.Tohelpustransformourunderstandinganddeepenour

perspective on the world, he offers us three standpoints from which we can

appraise the values by whichwe order our lives. These three standpoints also

representthree“moments”orstepsinanunfoldingprocessofinsightthatstarts

from our common-sense attitudes and moves strategically toward higher

knowledge, enlightenment, and release. The three moments are: gratification

(ass̄da), danger (ādīnava), and escape (nissarạa). In Texts VI,2(1)–(3), this

schemeisappliedtotheworldasawhole.ElsewhereintheNikāyas,thescheme

is applied more specifically to the four material elements (SN 14:31–33), the

fiveaggregates(SN22:26–28),andthesixinternalandexternalsensebases(SN

35:13–18).TheBuddhaunderscorestheimportanceofthisschemewiththebold

pronouncementthatuntilhewasabletofullyevaluatetheworld(or,inthetexts

referredtojustabove,theelements,aggregates,andsensebases)inthisway,he

didnotclaimthathehadattainedtheunsurpassedperfectenlightenment.

Inadvancingsystematicallythroughthisscheme,onebeginsbyrecognizing

theindubitablefactthatsuchworldly phenomena assenseobjects,forms,and

feelingsgiveussomedegreeofgratification.Thisgratificationconsistsinthe

pleasure and joy (sukha-somanassa) we experience when we succeed in

fulfillingourdesires.Onceweacknowledgethisfact,wecanthenprobedeeper

byaskingwhethersuchpleasureandjoyareentirelysatisfactory.Ifweaddress

thisquestionwithutterhonesty,inadispassionateframeofmind,wewillrealize

that such pleasure and joy are far from satisfactory. To the contrary, they are

saddledwithdrawbacksanddefectsrangingfromthetriflingtothecatastrophic,

defects that we perpetually hide from ourselves so that we can continue

unhindered in our quest for gratification. This is their danger, the second

momentorstep ofobservation. Themost pervasive dangerlurking behindthe

innocent façade of our worldly pleasures is their inherent nature of being

impermanent (anicca), bound up with suffering and discontent (dukkha), and

subjecttoinevitablechangeanddecay(vipariṇāmadhamma).

Thethirdmoment,themomentofescape,followsfromthesecond.“Escape”

here is not escapism, a word that implies an anxious attempt to avoid facing

one’sproblemsbypretendingtheydon’texistandlosingoneselfindistractions.

Trueescapeisquitetheopposite:thesanest,mostrational,mostjudiciouscourse

ofactionwecantakewhenweaccuratelyrecognizeagenuinedanger.Itisour

searchforanexitfromaburningbuilding,our visittothedoctorwhenwe’re

besetbyapersistentfever,ourdecisiontogiveupsmokingwhenweunderstand

howitjeopardizesourhealth.Onceweseethattheobjectsofourattachmentare

flawed,besetwithhiddendangers,wethenrealizethatthewayofescapeliesin

dropping our attachment to them. This is “the removal of desire and lust, the

abandoning of desire and lust” (chandar̄ga-vinaya, chandarāga-pahāna)

referredtointhetexts.

The Pāli commentators, not surprisingly, connect these three moments with

the Four Noble Truths. “Gratification” implies the second noble truth, for

pleasureandjoyarousecraving,theoriginofsuffering.“Danger”isthetruthof

suffering itself. And “escape” is the truth of the cessation of suffering, which

alsoimpliestheNobleEightfoldPath,thefourthtruth,thewaytothecessation

ofsuffering.

In Text VI,3 the Buddha uses this threefold scheme to make a detailed

appraisalofthreemajorobjectsofattachment:sensualpleasures,bodilyform,

andfeelings.Themajorportionofthesuttaisdevotedtoanexaminationofthe

dangersinsensualpleasures.Itbeginswithaclose-upviewofthetribulations

thata“clansman”—ayounghouseholderpursuingtheancientIndiancounterpart

ofaprofessionalcareer—mightundergoinhisquestforsensualgratification.As

thediscourseunfolds,thescopeoftheexaminationwidensfromthepersonalto

the collective, encompassing the broader social and political consequences of

this quest. It reaches its climax in striking images of the warfare and human

devastation that follow from the frenzied mass drive for sensual gratification.

“Form”isthephysicalbody.TheBuddhabeginshistreatmentofformbyasking

the monks to consider a beautiful young girl. He then traces the progressive

stagesofherphysicaldecay,througholdage,sickness,death,andtheeventual

disintegrationofthecorpseuntilitisreducedtopowderedbone.Toshowthe

dangerin“feeling,”theBuddhaselectsthefeelingsofameditatingmonkinthe

jhānas, the meditative absorptions, the most refined mundane experiences of

pleasureandpeace.Hepointsoutthateventheseloftyfeelingsareimpermanent,

unsatisfactory,andsubjecttochange.

Althoughthefollowingtextsdonotexplicitlyapplythethreefoldscheme,its

underlyingpresenceisobvious.Emphasisfallsontheaspectofdanger.Thetwo

textspresentedinsection4againaccentuatethepitfallsinsensualpleasures,but

do so differently from the text of the preceding section. In Text VI,4(1), the

Buddhaappearsindialoguewithapompoushouseholderwhoimaginesthathe

has“cutoffallworldlyaffairs.”Todispelhiscomplacency,theBuddhausesa

seriesofsimilesthatexposethedeceptivenessofsensualpleasurestoshowhim

whatthe“cuttingoffofaffairs”meansinhisownsystemoftraining.Theuseof

similes prevails in Text VI,4(2) as well, which pits the Buddha against a

hedonist named Māgandiya.The Buddha here contends that sensual pleasures

seemtobepleasurableonlythroughadistortionofperception,butwhenseen

rightly are like the fire in a burning charcoal pit—“painful to touch, hot, and

scorching.” This passage includes some of the most powerful similes in the

Nikāyas,andtherecanbelittledoubtthattheBuddhahasnotusedthemlightly.

TheuseofimageryalsofiguresprominentlyinTextVI,5,whosethemeisthe

transience of human life. Buddhist literature frequently advises us to

contemplatethecertaintyofdeathandtheuncertaintyofthetimeofitsarrival.

Thisrecommendationisnotmadetoinduceanattitudeofchronicmorbiditybut

to help us break our infatuation with life and develop detachment. For this

reason,recollectionofdeathhasbecomeoneofthemostimportantsubjectsof

Buddhistmeditation.TheBuddhaelsewheresaysthattherecollectionofdeath

“when developed and cultivated, gains a foothold in the Deathless and

culminatesintheDeathless”(AN7:46;IV47–48).Herethetransienceoflifeis

underscoredbycountingupthenumberofdays,seasons,andevenmealsina

singlelife.

TextVI,6isanexcerptfromtheRaṭṭhapālaSutta,whichrecountsthelifeof

thediscipletheBuddhacalled“theforemostofthosewhohavegoneforthoutof

faith.”Raṭṭhapālawasayoungmanfromawell-establishedfamilywhowasso

deeply stirred upon hearing the Buddha preach that he at once decided to

embrace the homeless life of a monk. The Buddha asked him to obtain his

parents’ permission, but his parents, being strongly attached to their only son,

adamantlyrefusedtogivetheirconsent.Raṭṭhapālathereuponlaydownonthe

groundandrefusedtoeatordrink,determinedtodierightthereorreceivethe

goingforth.Hisparentsfinallyrelentedandpermittedhimtobecomeamonkon

theconditionthathelaterreturntovisitthem.Yearslater,whenhevisitedhis

parents, they tried to entice him back to the household life, but since he had

already attained arahantship he was now beyond any possibility of disrobing.

Afterleavingtheirhome,hewenttotheroyalpleasuregarden,wherehegavea

discoursetoKingKoravyaon“foursummariesoftheDhamma.”Thisdiscourse

conveys his profound insights into the depth and universality of suffering,

explaininginsimpleandlucidwordswhyhe,likecountlessothercapablemen

andwomenintheprimeoflife,chosetoleavethecomfortsofthehouseholdfor

theuncertaintiesofthehomelessstate.

Cravingforsensualpleasuresisonetrapthatkeepsbeingsboundtotheround

ofrebirths.Anothermajortrapisattachmenttoviews.Thus,toclearthepathto

Nibbāna,theBuddhanotonly had todispelinfatuationwithsensualpleasures

butalsotoexposethedangerinviews.Thisisthethemeofsection7.

The most dangerous of wrong views are those that deny or undermine the

foundationsofethics.TextVI,7(1)drawstogetheranumberofperilsposedby

thistypeofwrongview;prominentamongthemisrebirthinthelowerrealms.

Viewsalsoleadtoone-sided,biasedinterpretationsofrealitythatweclingtoas

accurate and complete. People who cling tenaciously to their own views of a

particular situation often come into conflict with those who view the same

situation in a different light. Views thus give rise to conflicts and disputes.

Perhapsnotext inall ofworld literature hasdepicted this dangerin dogmatic

clinging more succinctly than the famous parable of the blind men and the

elephant,includedhereasTextVI,7(2).

TextVI,7(3)drawsacontrastbetweenthepairofdistortedviewsknownas

eternalism (sassatav̄da) and annihilationism (ucchedav̄da), also called,

respectively, the view of existence(bhavadiṭṭhi) and the view ofnonexistence

(vibhavadiṭṭhi). Eternalism affirms an eternal component in the individual, an

indestructibleself,andaneternalgroundoftheworld,suchasanall-powerful

creator God. Annihilationism denies that there is any survival beyond death,

holding that the individual comes to a complete end with the demise of the

physicalbody.Eternalism,accordingtotheBuddha,leadstodelightinexistence

andbindsbeingstothecycleofexistence.Annihilationismisoftenaccompanied

byadisgustwithexistencethat,paradoxically,bindsitsadherentstothesame

existence that they loathe. As we will see below, the Buddha’s teaching of

dependentoriginationavoidsboththesefutileends(seeIX,pp.356–57).

Text VI,8 highlights a particular problem posed by eternalist views. Such

viewscaninspiremeditatorstoattainstatesofdeepmeditativebliss,whichthey

interpretasunionwithadivinerealityorrealizationofaneternalself.Fromthe

perspectiveoftheBuddha’steaching,however,suchattainmentsmerelycreate

thekarmicpotentialforrebirthintoarealminwhichthatmeditativeexperience

becomes the fundamental condition of consciousness. In other words, the

attainment of these states in the human realm generates rebirth into the

correspondingplanesintherealmofsubtleformortheformlessrealm.While

many religions point to a divine realm as the final answer to the human

predicament,theBuddha’steachingholdsthattheseworldsoffernofinaloutlet

fromtheimpermanenceandmiseryofsaṃsāra.

The text cited here shows that certain meditators attain the four “divine

abodes”andtakerebirthinthecorrespondingplanesofthebrahmaworld,where

they might abide even for as long as five hundred great eons. Eventually,

however,theymustinevitablypassawayandmaythenfallintotheunfortunate

realmsofrebirth.Similartextsnotincludedhere(AN3:114,4:124)saythesame

respectivelyaboutrealmsofrebirthcorrespondingtothejhānasandtheformless

attainments.

Thetwosuttasthatconstitutethefinalsectionofthischapteragaintakeupthe

unsatisfactoriness and insecurity of conditioned existence, reinforcing their

messagewithdramaticimagery.InTextVI,9(1),theBuddhadeclaresthatthe

amountoftearswehaveshedwhilewanderingthroughtheroundofrebirthsis

greaterthanthewaterinthefourgreatoceans.InTextVI,9(2),hetellsagroup

of thirty monks that the amount of blood they have shed when they were

slaughteredandexecutedintheroundofrebirthsisgreaterthanthewaterinthe

four great oceans. According to the compilers of the sutta, the impact of this

discourseuponthethirtymonkswassopowerfulthatallattainedfullliberation

onthespot.

VI.DEEPENINGONE’SPERSPECTIVEONTHE

WORLD

1.FOURWONDERFULTHINGS

“Monks, on the manifestation of the Tathāgata, the Arahant, the Perfectly

EnlightenedOne,fourwonderfulandmarvelousthingsappear.Whatfour?

“People for the most part delight in attachment, take delight in attachment,

rejoiceinattachment.ButwhentheDhammaofnonattachmentistaughtbythe

Tathāgata,peoplewishtolistentoit,lendanear,andtrytounderstandit.Thisis

thefirstwonderfulandmarvelousthingthatappearsonthemanifestationofthe

Tathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne.

“Peopleforthemostpartdelightinconceit,takedelightinconceit,rejoicein

conceit.ButwhentheDhammais taughtbytheTathāgatafortheabolition of

conceit,peoplewishtolistentoit,lendanear,andtrytounderstandit.Thisis

thesecondwonderfulandmarvelousthingthatappearsonthemanifestationof

theTathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne.

“Peopleforthemostpartdelightinrestlessness,takedelightinrestlessness,

rejoice in restlessness. But when the Dhamma of peace is taught by the

Tathāgata,peoplewishtolistentoit,lendanear,andtrytounderstandit.Thisis

thethirdwonderfulandmarvelousthingthatappearsonthemanifestationofthe

Tathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne.

“Peopleforthemostpartliveinignorance,areblindedbyignorance,fettered

byignorance.ButwhentheDhammaistaughtbytheTathāgatafortheabolition

ofignorance,peoplewishtolistentoit,lendanear,andtrytounderstandit.This

isthefourthwonderfulandmarvelousthingthatappearsonthemanifestationof

aTathāgata,anArahant,aPerfectlyEnlightenedOne.

“OnthemanifestationoftheTathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightened

One,thesefourwonderfulandmarvelousthingsappear.”

(AN4:128;II131–32)

2.GRATIFICATION,DANGER,ANDESCAPE

(1)BeforeMyEnlightenment

“Beforemyenlightenment,Omonks,whileIwasstillabodhisatta,itoccurred

tome:‘Whatisthegratificationintheworld,whatisthedangerintheworld,

whatistheescapefromtheworld?’Thenitoccurredtome:‘Whateverpleasure

andjoythereisintheworld,thisisthegratificationintheworld;thattheworld

is impermanent, bound up with suffering, and subject to change, this is the

danger in the world; the removal and abandoning of desire and lust for the

world,thisistheescapefromtheworld.’

“So long, monks, as I did not directly know, as they really are, the

gratificationinthe world as gratification,its danger as danger, and the escape

fromtheworldasescape,forsolongIdidnotclaimtohaveawakenedtothe

unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this world with its devas, Māra, and

Brahmā,inthispopulationwithitsasceticsandbrahmins,itsdevasandhumans.

“Butwhen Idirectly knew all this, then I claimedto haveawakened to the

unsurpassedperfectenlightenmentinthisworldwith…itsdevasandhumans.

The knowledge and vision arose in me: ‘Unshakable is the liberation of my

mind;thisismylastbirth;thereisnownorenewedexistence.’”

(AN3:101§§1–2;I258–59)

(2)ISetOutSeeking

“Omonks,Isetoutseekingthegratificationintheworld.Whatevergratification

thereisintheworld,thatIhavefound.Ihaveclearlyseenwithwisdomjusthow

farthegratificationintheworldextends.

“I set out seeking the danger in the world. Whatever danger thereis in the

world, that I have found. I have clearly seen with wisdom just how far the

dangerintheworldextends.

“Isetoutseekinganescapefromtheworld.Whateverescapethereisfromthe

world,thatIhavefound.Ihaveclearlyseenwithwisdomjusthowfartheescape

fromtheworldextends.”

(AN3:101§3;I259)

(3)IfThereWereNoGratification

“If,monks,therewerenogratificationintheworld,beingswouldnotbecome

enamoredwiththeworld.Butbecausethereisgratificationintheworld,beings

becomeenamoredwithit.

“Iftherewerenodangerintheworld,beingswouldnotbecomedisenchanted

with the world. But because there is danger in the world, beings become

disenchantedwithit.

“Iftherewerenoescapefromtheworld,beingscouldnotescapefromit.But

asthereisanescapefromtheworld,beingscanescapefromit.”

(AN3:102;I260)

3.PROPERLYAPPRAISINGOBJECTSOFATTACHMENT

1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatSāvatthīin

Jeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’sPark.

2.Then,whenitwasmorning,anumberofmonksdressed,andtakingtheir

bowlsandouterrobes,wentintoSāvatthīforalms.Thentheythought:“Itisstill

too early to wander for alms in Sāvatthī. Suppose we went to the park of the

wanderersof othersects.” Sothey wentto thepark ofthe wanderersof other

sects and exchanged greetings with the wanderers. When this courteous and

amiable talk was finished, they sat down at one side. The wanderers said to

them:

3. “Friends, the ascetic Gotama describes the full understanding of sensual

pleasures,andwedosotoo;theasceticGotamadescribesthefullunderstanding

ofform,andwedosotoo;theasceticGotamadescribesthefullunderstanding

offeelings,andwedosotoo.Whatthenisthedistinctionhere,friends,whatis

thevariance,whatisthedifferencebetweentheasceticGotama’steachingofthe

Dhammaandours,betweenhisinstructionsandours?”

4. Then those monks neither approved nor disapproved of the wanderers’

words.Withoutdoingeithertheyrosefromtheirseatsandwentaway,thinking:

“WeshallcometounderstandthemeaningofthesewordsintheBlessedOne’s

presence.”

5.WhentheyhadwanderedforalmsinSāvatthīandhadreturnedfromtheir

almsround, after the meal they went to the Blessed One, and after paying

homagetohim,theysatdownatonesideandtoldhimwhathadtakenplace.

[TheBlessedOnesaid:]

6. “Monks, wanderers of other sects who speak thus should be questioned

thus:‘But,friends,whatisthegratification,whatisthedanger,andwhatisthe

escape in the case of sensual pleasures? What is the gratification, what is the

danger, and what is the escape in the case of form? What is the gratification,

whatisthedanger,andwhatistheescapeinthecaseoffeelings?’Iftheyare

questionedthus,wanderersofothersectswillfailtoaccountforthematter,and

whatismore,theywillgetintodifficulties.Whyisthat?Becauseitisnottheir

province.Monks,Iseenooneintheworldwithitsdevas,Māra,andBrahmā,in

thispopulationwithitsasceticsandbrahmins,itsdevasandhumans,whocould

satisfythemindwithareplytothesequestionsexceptfortheTathāgataorhis

discipleoronewhohaslearneditfromthem.

[sensualpleasures]

7. (i) “And what, monks, is the gratification in the case of sensual pleasures?

Monks,therearethesefivecordsofsensualpleasure.Whatarethefive?Forms

cognizable by the eye that are wished for, desired, agreeable and likeable,

connectedwithsensualdesire,andprovocativeoflust.Soundscognizablebythe

ear.… Odors cognizable by the nose.… Flavors cognizable by the tongue.…

Tactileobjectscognizablebythebodythatarewishedfor,desired,agreeableand

likeable,connectedwith sensualdesire, and provocativeof lust.These arethe

fivecordsofsensualpleasure.Nowthepleasureandjoythatarisedependenton

thesefivecordsofsensualpleasurearethegratificationinthecaseofsensual

pleasures.

8.(ii)“Andwhat,monks,isthedangerinthecaseofsensualpleasures?Here,

monks,onaccountofthecraftbywhichaclansmanmakesaliving—whether

checking,accounting,calculating,farming,trading,husbandry,archery,theroyal

service,orwhatevercraftitmaybe—hehastofacecoldandheat;heisinjured

by contact with gadflies, mosquitoes, wind, sun, and creeping things; he risks

deathbyhungerandthirst.Nowthisisadangerinthecaseofsensualpleasures,

a mass of suffering visible in this present life,having sensual pleasures as its

cause,source,andbasis,thecausebeingsimplysensualpleasures.

9. “If no property comes to the clansman while he works and strives and

makes an effort thus, he sorrows, grieves, and laments, he weeps beating his

breast and becomes distraught, crying: ‘My work is in vain, my effort is

fruitless!’Nowthistooisadangerinthecaseofsensualpleasures,amassof

sufferingvisibleinthispresentlife,havingsensualpleasuresasitscause,source,

andbasis,thecausebeingsimplysensualpleasures.

10.“Ifpropertycomestotheclansmanwhileheworksandstrivesandmakes

aneffortthus,heexperiencespainandgriefinprotectingit:‘Howshallneither

kingsnorthievesmakeoffwithmyproperty,norfireburnit,norwatersweepit

away, nor unloved heirs make offwith it?’ And as he guards and protects his

property,kingsorthievesmakeoffwithit,orfireburnsit,orwatersweepsit

away,orunlovedheirsmakeoffwithit.Andhesorrows,grieves,andlaments,

heweepsbeatinghisbreastandbecomesdistraught,crying:‘Inolongerhave

myproperty!’Nowthistooisadangerinthecaseofsensualpleasures,amassof

sufferingvisibleinthispresentlife,havingsensualpleasuresasitscause,source,

andbasis,thecausebeingsimplysensualpleasures.

11.“Again,withsensualpleasuresasthecause...kingsquarrel with kings,

khattiyas with khattiyas, brahmins with brahmins, householders with

householders;motherquarrelswithson,son withmother, fatherwithson,son

withfather;brotherquarrelswithbrother,brotherwithsister,sisterwithbrother,

friendwithfriend.Andhereintheirquarrels,brawls,anddisputestheyattack

eachotherwithfists,clods,sticks,orknives,wherebytheyincurdeathordeadly

suffering.Nowthistooisadangerinthecaseofsensualpleasures,amassof

sufferingvisibleinthispresentlife,havingsensualpleasuresasitscause,source,

andbasis,thecausebeingsimplysensualpleasures.

12. “Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... men take swords and

shieldsandbuckleonbowsandquivers,andtheychargeintobattlemassedin

doublearraywitharrowsandspearsflyingandswordsflashing;andtherethey

are wounded by arrows and spears, and their heads are cut off by swords,

wherebytheyincurdeathordeadlysuffering.Nowthis toois a dangerin the

caseofsensualpleasures,amassofsufferingvisibleinthispresentlife,having

sensualpleasuresasitscause,source,andbasis,thecausebeingsimplysensual

pleasures.

13. “Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... men take swords and

shieldsandbuckleonbowsandquivers,andtheychargeslipperybastions,with

arrowsand spears flying andswords flashing; and there they are wounded by

arrows and spears and splashed with boiling liquids and crushed under heavy

weights, and their heads are cut off by swords, whereby they incur death or

deadly suffering. Now this too is a danger in the case of sensual pleasures, a

mass of suffering visible in this present life, having sensual pleasures as its

cause,source,andbasis,thecausebeingsimplysensualpleasures.

14. “Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... men break into houses,

plunderwealth,commitburglary,ambushhighways,seduceothers’wives,and

when they are caught, kings have many kinds of torture inflicted on them ...

wherebytheyincur death ordeadlysuffering.Nowthistoo isadanger inthe

caseofsensualpleasures,amassofsufferingvisibleinthispresentlife,having

sensualpleasuresasitscause,source,andbasis,thecausebeingsimplysensual

pleasures.

15. “Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... people indulge in

misconductofbody,speech,andmind.Havingdoneso,onthebreakupofthe

body,afterdeath,theyarereborninastateofmisery,inabaddestination,inthe

lower world, in hell. Now this is a danger in the case of sensual pleasures, a

mass of suffering in the life to come,

 having sensual pleasures as its cause,

source,andbasis,thecausebeingsimplysensualpleasures.

16.(iii)“Andwhat,monks,istheescapeinthecaseofsensualpleasures?Itis

theremovalofdesireandlust,theabandonmentofdesireandlustforsensual

pleasures.Thisistheescapeinthecaseofsensualpleasures.

17.“Thatthoseasceticsandbrahminswhodonotunderstandasitreallyisthe

gratificationasgratification,thedangerasdanger,andtheescapeasescapein

the case of sensual pleasures, can either themselves fully understand sensual

pleasuresorinstructotherssothattheycanfullyunderstandsensualpleasures—

thatisimpossible.Thatthoseasceticsandbrahminswhounderstandasitreally

is the gratification as gratification, the danger as danger, and the escape as

escapeinthecaseofsensualpleasures,canthemselvesfullyunderstandsensual

pleasuresandinstructotherssothattheycanfullyunderstandsensualpleasures

—thatispossible.

[form]

18.(i)“Andwhat,monks,isthegratificationinthecaseofform?Supposethere

wereagirlofthekhattiyaclassorthebrahminclassorofhouseholderstock,in

herfifteenthorsixteenthyear,neithertootallnortooshort,neithertoothinnor

too fat, neither too dark nor too fair. Is her beauty and loveliness then at its

height?”—“Yes, venerable sir.”—“Now the pleasure and joy that arise in

dependence on that beauty and loveliness are the gratification in the case of

form.

19.(ii)“And what,monks, isthedanger inthe caseofform? Lateron one

mightseethatsamewomanhereateighty,ninety,orahundredyears,aged,as

crookedasaroofbracket,doubledup,supportedbyawalkingstick,tottering,

frail, her youth gone, her teeth broken, gray-haired, scanty-haired, bald,

wrinkled, with limbs all blotchy. What do you think, monks? Has her former

beauty and loveliness vanished and the danger become evident?”—“Yes,

venerablesir.”—“Monks,thisisadangerinthecaseofform.

20.“Again,onemightseethatsamewomanafflicted,suffering,andgravely

ill,lyingfouledinherownurineandexcrement,liftedupbysomeandsetdown

by others. What do you think, monks? Has her former beauty and loveliness

vanishedandthedangerbecomeevident?”—“Yes,venerablesir.”—“Monks,this

tooisadangerinthecaseofform.

21. “Again, one might see that same woman as a corpse thrown aside in a

charnelground,one,two,orthreedaysdead,bloated,livid,andoozingmatter.

Whatdoyouthink,monks?Hasherformerbeautyandlovelinessvanishedand

the danger become evident?”—“Yes, venerable sir.”—“Monks, this too is a

dangerinthecaseofform.

22–29.“Again,onemightseethatsamewomanasacorpsethrownasideina

charnel ground, being devoured by crows, hawks, vultures, dogs, jackals, or

variouskindsofworms...askeletonwithfleshandblood,heldtogetherwith

sinews...afleshlessskeletonsmearedwithblood,heldtogetherwithsinews...a

skeleton without flesh and blood, held together with sinews ...disconnected

bones scattered in all directions—here a hand-bone, there a foot-bone, here a

thigh-bone,therearib-bone,hereahip-bone,thereaback-bone,heretheskull

…bonesbleachedwhite,thecolorofshells...bonesheapedup…bonesmore

thanayearold,rottedandcrumbledtodust.Whatdoyouthink,monks?Hasher

formerbeautyandlovelinessvanishedandthedangerbecomeevident?”—“Yes,

venerablesir.”—“Monks,thistooisadangerinthecaseofform.

30.(iii)“Andwhat,monks,istheescapeinthecaseofform?Itistheremoval

of desire and lust, the abandonment of desire and lust for form. This is the

escapeinthecaseofform.

31.“Thatthoseasceticsandbrahminswhodonotunderstandasitreallyisthe

gratificationasgratification,thedangerasdanger,andtheescapeasescapein

thecaseofform,caneitherthemselvesfullyunderstandformorinstructothers

sothattheycanfullyunderstandform—thatisimpossible.Thatthoseascetics

andbrahminswhounderstandasitreallyisthegratificationasgratification,the

dangerasdanger,andtheescapeasescapeinthecaseofform,canthemselves

fullyunderstandformandinstructotherssothattheycanfullyunderstandform

—thatispossible.

[feelings]

32. (i) “And what, monks, is the gratification in the case of feelings? Here,

monks, quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome

states,amonkentersuponanddwellsinthefirstjhāna,whichisaccompanied

bythoughtandexamination,withraptureandhappinessbornofseclusion.On

such an occasion he does not choose for his own affliction, or for another’s

affliction,orfortheafflictionofboth.Onthatoccasionhefeelsonlyfeelingthat

isfreefromaffliction.Thehighestgratificationinthecaseoffeelingsisfreedom

fromaffliction,Isay.

33–35.“Again, with thestilling of thoughtand examination, a monk enters

uponanddwellsinthesecondjhāna.…Withthefadingawayaswellofrapture

... he enters upon and dwells in the third jhāna.... With the abandoning of

pleasureandpainheentersuponanddwellsinthefourthjhāna.…Onsuchan

occasionhedoesnotchooseforhisownaffliction,orforanother’saffliction,or

fortheafflictionofboth.Onthatoccasionhefeelsonlyfeelingthatisfreefrom

affliction. The highest gratification in the case of feelings is freedom from

affliction,Isay.

36.(ii)“Andwhat,monks,isthedangerinthecaseoffeelings?Feelingsare

impermanent,suffering,andsubjecttochange.Thisisthedangerinthecaseof

feelings.

37. (iii) “And what, monks, is the escape in the case of feelings? It is the

removalofdesireandlust,theabandonmentofdesireandlustforfeelings.This

istheescapeinthecaseoffeelings.

38.“Thatthoseasceticsandbrahminswhodonotunderstandasitreallyisthe

gratificationasgratification,thedangerasdanger,andtheescapeasescapein

thecaseoffeelings,caneitherthemselvesfullyunderstandfeelingsorinstruct

otherssothattheycanfullyunderstandfeelings—thatisimpossible.Thatthose

ascetics and brahmins who understand as it really is the gratification as

gratification, the danger as danger, and the escape as escape in the case of

feelings,canthemselvesfullyunderstandfeelingsandinstructotherssothatthey

canfullyunderstandfeelings—thatispossible.”

ThatiswhattheBlessedOnesaid.Themonksweresatisfiedanddelightedin

theBlessedOne’swords.

(MN13:MahādukkhakkhandhaSutta;I84–90)

4.THEPITFALLSINSENSUALPLEASURES

(1)CuttingOffAllAffairs

[The householder Potaliya asked the Blessed One:] “Venerable sir, how is the

cuttingoffofaffairs

intheNobleOne’sdisciplineachievedentirelyandinall

ways?Itwouldbegood,venerablesir,iftheBlessedOnewouldteachmethe

Dhamma, showing me how the cutting off of affairs in the Noble One’s

disciplineisachievedentirelyandinallways.”

“Thenlisten,householder,andattendcloselytowhatIshallsay.”

“Yes,venerablesir,”Potaliyathehouseholderreplied.TheBlessedOnesaid

this:

15. “Householder, suppose a dog, overcome by hunger and weakness, was

waitingbyabutcher’sshop.Thenaskilledbutcherorhisapprenticewouldtoss

thedog a well-hacked, clean-hacked skeleton of meatless bones smeared with

blood.Whatdo youthink, householder?Would thatdogget ridof hishunger

and weakness by gnawing such a well-hacked, clean-hacked skeleton of

meatlessbonessmearedwithblood?”

“No,venerablesir.Whyisthat?Becausethatwasaskeletonofwell-hacked,

clean-hacked meatless bones smeared with blood. Eventually that dog would

reapwearinessanddisappointment.”

“Sotoo,householder,anoblediscipleconsidersthus:‘Sensualpleasureshave

beencomparedtoaskeletonbytheBlessedOne;theyprovidemuchsuffering

andmuchdespair,whilethedangerinthemisstillmore.’Havingseenthisthus

asitreallyiswithproperwisdom,heavoidstheequanimitythatisdiversified,

basedondiversity,anddevelopstheequanimitythatisunified,basedonunity,

whereclingingtothecarnalthingsoftheworldutterlyceaseswithoutremainder.

16.“Householder,supposeavulture,aheron,orahawkseizedapieceofmeat

andflewaway,andthenothervultures,herons,andhawkspursueditandpecked

andclawedit. Whatdo youthink, householder? Ifthat firstvulture,heron, or

hawk does not quickly let go of that piece of meat, wouldn’t it thereby incur

deathordeadlysuffering?”

“Yes,venerablesir.”

“Sotoo,householder,anoblediscipleconsidersthus:‘Sensualpleasureshave

been compared to a piece of meat by the Blessed One; they provide much

sufferingandmuchdespair,whilethedangerinthemisstillmore.’Havingseen

thisthusasitreallyiswithproperwisdom…clingingtothecarnalthingsofthe

worldutterlyceaseswithoutremainder.

17.“Householder,supposeamantookablazinggrasstorchandwentagainst

thewind.Whatdoyouthink,householder?Ifthatmandoesnotquicklyletgoof

thatblazinggrasstorch,wouldn’tthatblazinggrasstorchburnhishandorhis

arm or some other part of his body, so that he might incur death or deadly

sufferingbecauseofthat?”

“Yes,venerablesir.”

“Sotoo,householder,anoblediscipleconsidersthus:‘Sensualpleasureshave

beencomparedtoagrasstorchbytheBlessedOne;theyprovidemuchsuffering

andmuchdespair,whilethedangerinthemisstillmore.’Havingseenthisthus

asitreallyiswithproperwisdom…clingingtothecarnalthingsoftheworld

utterlyceaseswithoutremainder.

18. “Householder, suppose there were a charcoal pit deeper than a man’s

height full of glowing coals without flame or smoke. Then a man came who

wantedtoliveandnottodie,whowantedpleasureandrecoiledfrompain,and

twostrongmenseizedhimbybotharmsanddraggedhimtowardthatcharcoal

pit.Whatdoyouthink,householder?Wouldthatmantwisthisbodythisway

andthat?”“Yes,venerablesir.Whyisthat?Becausethatmanknowsthatifhe

falls into that charcoal pit, he will incur death or deadly suffering because of

that.”

“Sotoo,householder,anoblediscipleconsidersthus:‘Sensualpleasureshave

been compared to a charcoal pit by the Blessed One; they provide much

sufferingandmuchdespair,whilethedangerinthemisstillmore.’Havingseen

thisthusasitreallyiswithproperwisdom…clingingtothecarnalthingsofthe

worldutterlyceaseswithoutremainder.

19.“Householder,supposeamandreamedaboutlovelyparks,lovelygroves,

lovelymeadows,andlovelylakes,andonwakinghesawnothingofthem.So

too,householder,anoblediscipleconsidersthus:‘Sensualpleasureshavebeen

comparedtoadreambytheBlessedOne;theyprovidemuchsufferingandmuch

despair,whilethedangerinthemisstillmore.’Havingseenthisthusasitreally

iswithproperwisdom...clingingtothecarnalthingsoftheworldutterlyceases

withoutremainder.

20.“Householder,supposeamanborrowedgoodsonloan—afancycarriage

andfinejewelearrings—andprecededandsurroundedbythoseborrowedgoods

hewenttothemarketplace.Thenpeople,seeinghim,wouldsay:‘Sirs,thatisa

richman!Thatishowtherichenjoytheirwealth!’Thentheowners,whenever

theysawhim, would takebacktheir things.Whatdo youthink,householder?

Wouldthatbeenoughforthatmantobecomedejected?”

“Yes,venerablesir.Whyisthat?Becausetheownerstookbacktheirthings.”

“Sotoo,householder,anoblediscipleconsidersthus:‘Sensualpleasureshave

been compared to borrowed goods by the Blessed One; they provide much

sufferingandmuchdespair,whilethedangerinthemisstillmore.’Havingseen

thisthus as it reallyis with proper wisdom... clinging to carnalthings of the

worldutterlyceaseswithoutremainder.

21.“Householder,supposeadensegrovenotfarfromsomevillageortown

hadafruit-ladentree,noneofwhosefruithadfallentotheground.Thenaman

cameneedingfruit,seekingfruit,wanderinginsearchoffruit,andheenteredthe

groveandsawthetreeladenwithfruit.Thereuponhethought:‘Thistreeisladen

withfruitbutnoneofitsfruithasfallentotheground.Iknowhowtoclimba

tree,soletmeclimbthistree,eatasmuchfruitasIwant,andfillmybag.’And

hedidso.Then a secondmancameneedingfruit, seekingfruit,wanderingin

searchoffruit,andtakingasharpaxe,hetooenteredthegroveandsawthattree

ladenwithfruit.Thereuponhethought:‘Thistreeisladenwithfruitbutnoneof

itsfruithasfallentotheground.Idonotknowhowtoclimbatree,soletmecut

thistreedownatitsroot,eatasmuchfruitasIwant,andfillmybag.’Andhe

didso.Whatdoyouthink,householder?Ifthatfirstmanwhohadclimbedthe

treedoesn’tcomedownquickly,whenthetreefalls,wouldn’thebreakhishand

orfootorsomeotherpartofhisbody,sothathemightincurdeathordeadly

sufferingbecauseofthat?”

“Yes,venerablesir.”

“Sotoo,householder,anoblediscipleconsidersthus:‘Sensualpleasureshave

been compared to fruits on a tree by the Blessed One; they provide much

sufferingandmuchdespair,whilethedangerinthemisstillmore.’Havingseen

this thus as it really is with proper wisdom, he avoids the equanimity that is

diversified,basedondiversity,anddevelopstheequanimitythatisunified,based

onunity,whereclingingtothecarnalthingsoftheworldutterlyceaseswithout

remainder.”

(fromMN54:PotaliyaSutta;I364–66)

(2)TheFeverofSensualPleasures

10. “Māgandiya, formerly when I lived the household life, I enjoyed myself,

provided and endowed with the five cords of sensual pleasure: with forms

cognizable by the eye ... with sounds cognizable by the ear ... with odors

cognizablebythenose...withflavorscognizablebythetongue...withtactile

objects cognizable by the body that are wished for, desired, agreeable, and

likeable, connected with sensual desire and provocative of lust.

 I had three

palaces,onefortherainyseason,oneforthewinter,andoneforthesummer.I

livedintherains’palaceforthefourmonthsoftherainyseason,enjoyingmyself

withmusicians,nonemale,andIdidnotgodowntothelowerpalace.

“On a later occasion, having understood as they really are the origin, the

passingaway,thegratification,thedanger,andtheescapeinthecaseofsensual

pleasures, I abandoned craving for sensual pleasures, I removed the fever of

sensualpleasures,andIdwellwithoutthirst,withamindinwardlyatpeace.Isee

otherpeoplewhoarenotfreefromlustforsensualpleasuresbeingdevouredby

craving for sensual pleasures, burning with the fever of sensual pleasures,

indulginginsensualpleasures,andIdonotenvythem,nordoIdelighttherein.

Why is that? Because there is, Māgandiya, a delight apart from sensual

pleasures, apart from unwholesome states, which surpasses even divine bliss.

Since I take delight in that, I do not envy what is inferior, nor do I delight

therein.

11. “Suppose, Māgandiya, a householder or a householder’s son was rich,

affluent,andwealthy,andbeing providedandendowed withthefive cords of

sensual pleasure, he mightenjoy himself with forms cognizable by the eye ...

withsoundscognizablebytheear...withodorscognizablebythenose...with

flavorscognizablebythetongue...withtactileobjectscognizablebythebody

that are wished for, desired, agreeable and likeable, connected with sensual

desireandprovocativeoflust.Havingconductedhimselfwellinbody,speech,

andmind,onthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,hemightbereborninagood

destination,inaheavenlyworldintheretinueoftheTāvatiṃsadevas;andthere,

surrounded by a group of nymphs in the Nandana Grove,

 he would enjoy

himself provided and endowed with the fivecords ofdivine sensualpleasure.

Suppose he saw a householder or a householder’s son enjoying himself,

providedandendowedwiththefivecordsof[human]sensualpleasure.Whatdo

you think, Māgandiya? Would that young deva surrounded by the group of

nymphsintheNandanaGrove,enjoyinghimselfprovidedandendowedwiththe

fivecordsofdivinesensualpleasure,envythehouseholderorthehouseholder’s

son for the five cords of human sensual pleasure or would he be enticed by

humansensualpleasures?”

“No, Master Gotama. Why not? Because divine sensual pleasures are more

excellentandsublimethanhumansensualpleasures.”

12.“Sotoo,Māgandiya,formerlywhenIlivedthehouseholdlife,Ienjoyed

myself, provided and endowed with the five cords of sensual pleasure: with

formscognizablebytheeye...withtactileobjectscognizablebythebodythat

arewished for,desired, agreeable,and likeable,connected with sensual desire

andprovocativeoflust.Onalateroccasion,havingunderstoodastheyreallyare

thegratification,thedanger,andthe escape inthecaseof sensual pleasures,I

abandoned craving for sensual pleasures, I removed the fever of sensual

pleasures,andIdwellwithoutthirst,withamindinwardlyatpeace.Iseeother

people who are not free from lust for sensual pleasures being devoured by

craving for sensual pleasures, burning with the fever of sensual pleasures,

indulginginsensualpleasures,andIdonotenvythemnordoIdelighttherein.

Why is that? Because there is, Māgandiya, a delight apart from sensual

pleasures, apart from unwholesome states, which surpasses even divine bliss.

Since I take delight in that, I do not envy what is inferior, nor do I delight

therein.

13. “Suppose, Māgandiya, there was a leper with sores and blisters on his

limbs,being devoured by worms,scratching the scabs off the openings of his

woundswithhisnails,cauterizinghisbodyoveraburningcharcoalpit.Thenhis

friendsandcompanions,hiskinsmenandrelatives,wouldbringaphysicianto

treathim.The physicianwould make medicinefor him,andby meansof that

medicine the manwould be cured of his leprosyand would become well and

happy,independent,masterofhimself,abletogowherehelikes.Thenhemight

seeanotherleperwithsoresandblistersonhislimbs,beingdevouredbyworms,

scratchingthescabsofftheopeningsofhiswoundswithhisnails,cauterizing

hisbodyoveraburningcharcoalpit.Whatdoyouthink,Māgandiya?Wouldthat

manenvythatleperforhisburningcharcoalpitorhisuseofmedicine?”“No,

MasterGotama.Whyisthat?Becausewhenthereissickness,thereisneedfor

medicine,andwhenthereisnosicknessthereisnoneedformedicine.”

14. “So too, Māgandiya, formerlywhen I lived the household life ... [as in

§12] … Since I take delight in that, I do not envy what is inferior, nor do I

delighttherein.

15. “Suppose, Māgandiya, there was a leper with sores and blisters on his

limbs,being devoured by worms,scratching the scabs off the openings of his

woundswithhisnails,cauterizinghisbodyoveraburningcharcoalpit.Thenhis

friendsandcompanions,hiskinsmenandrelatives,broughtaphysiciantotreat

him. The physician would make medicine for him, and by means of that

medicine the manwould be cured of his leprosyand would become well and

happy, independent, master of himself, able to go where he likes. Then two

strong men would seize him by both arms and drag him toward a burning

charcoalpit.Whatdoyouthink,Māgandiya?Wouldthatmantwisthisbodythis

wayandthat?”“Yes,MasterGotama.Whyisthat?Becausethatfireisindeed

painfultotouch,hot,andscorching.”“Whatdoyouthink,Māgandiya?Isitonly

nowthatthatfireispainfultotouch,hot,andscorching,orpreviouslytoowas

thatfirepainfultotouch,hot,andscorching?”“MasterGotama,thatfireisnow

painfultotouch,hot,andscorching,andpreviouslytoothatfirewaspainfulto

touch,hot,andscorching.Forwhenthatmanwasaleperwithsoresandblisters

onhislimbs,beingdevouredbyworms,scratchingthescabsofftheopeningsof

hiswoundswithhisnails,hisfacultieswereimpaired;thus,thoughthefirewas

actuallypainfultotouch,heacquiredamistakenperceptionofitaspleasant.”

16.“Sotoo,Māgandiya,inthepastsensualpleasureswerepainfultotouch,

hot,andscorching;inthefuturesensualpleasureswillbepainfultotouch,hot,

andscorching; and now atpresent sensual pleasures arepainful to touch, hot,

andscorching.Butthesepeoplewhoarenotfreefromlustforsensualpleasures,

whoaredevouredbycravingforsensualpleasures,whoburnwiththefeverof

sensual pleasures, have faculties that are impaired; thus, though sensual

pleasures are actually painful to touch, they acquire a mistaken perception of

themaspleasant.

17. “Suppose, Māgandiya, there was a leper with sores and blisters on his

limbs,being devoured by worms,scratching the scabs off the openings of his

woundswithhisnails,cauterizinghisbodyoveraburningcharcoalpit;themore

he scratches the scabs and cauterizes hisbody, the fouler, more evil-smelling,

andmoreinfectedtheopeningsofhiswoundswouldbecome,yethewouldfind

acertainmeasureofsatisfactionandenjoymentinscratchingtheopeningsofhis

wounds. So too, Māgandiya, people who are not free from lust for sensual

pleasures,whoaredevouredbycravingforsensualpleasures,whoburnwiththe

fever of sensual pleasures, still indulge in sensual pleasures; the more they

indulge in sensual pleasures, the more their craving for sensual pleasures

increases and the more they are burned by the fever of sensual pleasures, yet

theyfindacertainmeasureofsatisfactionandenjoymentindependenceonthe

fivecordsofsensualpleasure.”

(fromMN75:MāgandiyaSutta;I504–8)

5.LIFEISSHORTANDFLEETING

“Longago,Omonks,therelivedareligiousteachernamedAraka,whowasfree

ofsensuallust.Hehadmanyhundredsofdisciples,andthiswasthedoctrinehe

taughttothem:

“‘Shortisthelifeofhumanbeings,Obrahmins,limitedandbrief;itisfullof

suffering,fulloftribulation.Thisoneshouldwiselyunderstand.Oneshoulddo

goodandliveapurelife;fornonewhoisborncanescapedeath.

“‘Just as a dew drop on the tip of a blade of grass will quickly vanish at

sunriseandwillnotlastlong;evenso,brahmins,ishumanlifelikeadewdrop.

Itisshort,limited,andbrief;itisfullofsuffering,fulloftribulation.Thisone

shouldwiselyunderstand.Oneshoulddogoodandliveapurelife;fornonewho

isborncanescapedeath.

“‘Justas,whenrainfallsfromtheskyinthickdrops,abubbleappearingon

thewaterwillquicklyvanishandwillnotlastlong;evenso,brahmins,ishuman

lifelikeawaterbubble.Itisshort...fornonewhoisborncanescapedeath.

“‘Justasalinedrawnonwaterwithastickwillquicklyvanishandwillnot

lastlong;evenso,brahmins,ishumanlifelikealinedrawnonwater.Itisshort

...fornonewhoisborncanescapedeath.

“‘Justasamountainstream,comingfromafar,swiftlyflowing,carryingalong

muchflotsam,willnot standstillfor a moment,aninstant, asecond,but will

rush on, swirl and flow forward; even so, brahmins, is human life like a

mountainstream.Itisshort…fornonewhoisborncanescapedeath.

“‘Justasastrongmanmightformalumpofspittleatthetipofhistongueand

spititoutwithease;evenso,brahmins,ishumanlifelikealumpofspittle.Itis

short...fornonewhoisborncanescapedeath.

“‘Justasapieceofmeatthrownintoanironpanheatedalldaywillquickly

burnupandwillnotlastlong;evenso,brahmins,ishumanlifelikethispieceof

meat.Itisshort...fornonewhoisborncanescapedeath.

“‘Justas,whenacowtobeslaughteredisledtotheshambles,whenevershe

liftsalegshewillbeclosertoslaughter,closertodeath;evenso,brahmins,is

humanlifelikecattledoomedtoslaughter;itisshort,limited,andbrief.Itisfull

ofsuffering,fulloftribulation.Thisoneshouldwiselyunderstand.Oneshould

dogoodandliveapurelife;fornonewhoisborncanescapedeath.’

“Butatthattime,Omonks,thehumanlifespanwas60,000years,andat500

yearsgirlswerereadyformarriage.Inthosedayspeoplehadbutsixafflictions:

cold,heat,hunger,thirst,excrement,andurine.Thoughpeoplelivedsolongand

hadsofewafflictions,thatteacherArakagavetohisdisciplessuchateaching:

‘Shortisthelifeofhumanbeings.…’

“Butnowadays,Omonks,onecouldrightlysay,‘Shortisthelifeofhuman

beings …’; for today one who lives long lives for a hundred years or a little

more.Andwhenlivingforahundredyears,itisjustforthreehundredseasons:a

hundredwinters,ahundredsummers,andahundredrains.Whenlivingforthree

hundred seasons, it is just for twelve hundred months: four hundred winter

months, four hundred summer months, and four hundred months of the rains.

When living for twelve hundred months, it is just for twenty-four hundred

fortnights: eight hundred fortnights of winter, eight hundred of summer, and

eighthundredoftherains.

“And when living for twenty-four hundred fortnights, it is just for 36,000

days:12,000 days of winter, 12,000 of summer, and 12,000 of the rains. And

whenlivingfor36,000days,heeatsjust72,000meals:24,000mealsinwinter,

24,000 in summer, and 24,000 in the rains. And this includes the taking of

mother’s milk and the times without food. These are the times without food:

whenagitatedorgrievedorsick,whenobservingafast,orwhennotobtaining

anythingtoeat.

“Thus, O monks, I have reckoned the life of a centenarian:the limit of his

lifespan, the number of seasons, years, months, and fortnights, of days and

nights,ofhismealsandfoodlesstimes.

“Whatever should be done by a compassionate teacher who, out of

compassion,seeksthewelfareofhisdisciples,thatIhavedoneforyou.These

aretherootsoftrees,Omonks,theseareemptyhuts.Meditate,monks,donotbe

negligent,orelseyouwillregretitlater.Thisisourinstructiontoyou.”

(AN7:70;IV136–39)

6.FOURSUMMARIESOFTHEDHAMMA

26.TheVenerableRaṭṭhapālawenttoKingKoravya’sMigācīragardenandsat

downattherootofatreetopasstheday.

27.ThenKingKoravyaaddressedhisgamekeeperthus:“Goodgamekeeper,

tidyuptheMigācīraGardensothatwemaygotothepleasuregardentoseea

pleasing spot.”—“Yes, sire,” he replied. Now while he was tidying up the

Migācīra Garden, the gamekeeper saw the Venerable Raṭṭhapāla seated at the

rootofatreefortheday’sabiding.Whenhesawhim,hewenttoKingKoravya

and told him: “Sire, the Migācīra Garden has been tidied up. The clansman

Raṭṭhapālais there, the son ofthe leading clan in this sameThullakoṭṭhita,of

whomyouhavealwaysspokenhighly;heisseatedattherootofatreeforthe

day’sabiding.”

“Then,goodgamekeeper,enoughofthepleasuregardenfortoday.Nowwe

shallgotopayrespectstothatMasterRaṭṭhapāla.”

28.Then,saying:“Giveawayallthefoodthathasbeenpreparedthere,”King

Koravyahadanumberofstatecarriagesprepared,andmountingoneofthem,

accompaniedbytheothercarriages,hedroveoutfromThullakoṭṭhitawiththe

fullpompofroyaltytoseetheVenerableRaṭṭhapāla.Hedrovethusasfarasthe

roadwaspassableforcarriages,andthenhedismountedfromhiscarriageand

wentforwardonfootwithafollowingofthemosteminentofficialstowherethe

Venerable Raṭṭhapāla was. He exchanged greetings with the Venerable

Raṭṭhapāla,andwhenthiscourteousandamiabletalkwasfinished,hestoodat

onesideandsaid:“Hereisanelephantrug.LetMasterRaṭṭhapālabeseatedon

it.”

“Thereisnoneed,greatking.Sitdown.Iamsittingonmyownmat.”

KingKoravyasatdownonaseatmadereadyandsaid:

29. “Master Raṭṭhapāla, there are four kinds of loss. Because they have

undergone these four kinds of loss, some peoplehere shave offtheir hair and

beard, put on the ochre robe, and go forth from the household life into

homelessness. What are the four? They are loss through aging, loss through

sickness,lossofwealth,andlossofrelatives.

30. “And what is loss through aging? Here, Master Raṭṭhapāla, someone is

old, aged, burdened with years, advanced in life, come to the last stage. He

considersthus:‘Iamold,aged,burdenedwithyears,advancedinlife,cometo

thelaststage.Itisnolongereasyformetoacquirenewwealthortoaugment

wealthalreadyacquired.SupposeIshaveoffmyhairandbeard,putontheochre

robe,andgoforthfromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.’Becausehehas

undergonethatlossthroughaging,heshavesoffhishairandbeard,putsonthe

ochrerobe, and goes forth from the household life into homelessness. This is

called loss through aging. But Master Raṭṭhapāla is now still young, a black-

haired young man endowed with the blessing of youth, in the prime of life.

Master Raṭṭhapāla has not undergone any loss through aging. What has he

known, seen, or heard that he has gone forth from the household life into

homelessness?

31.“Andwhatislossthroughsickness?Here,MasterRaṭṭhapāla,someoneis

afflicted,suffering,andgravelyill.Heconsidersthus:‘Iamafflicted,suffering,

and gravely ill. It is no longer easy for me to acquire new wealth ... into

homelessness.’Becausehehasundergonethatlossthroughsickness…hegoes

forth from the household life into homelessness. This is called loss through

sickness. But Master Raṭṭhapāla now is free from illness and affliction; he

possessesagood digestionthat isneithertoo coolnor toowarm but medium.

Master Raṭṭhapāla has not undergone any loss through sickness. What has he

known, seen, or heard that he has gone forth from the household life into

homelessness?

32.“Andwhatislossofwealth?Here,MasterRaṭṭhapāla,someoneisrich,

affluent,andwealthy.Graduallyhis wealthdwindlesaway.Heconsiders thus:

‘FormerlyIwasrich,affluent,andwealthy.Graduallymywealthhasdwindled

away.Itisnolongereasyformetoacquirenewwealth...intohomelessness.’

Because he has undergone that loss of wealth ... he goes forth from the

household life into homelessness. This is called loss of wealth. But Master

Raṭṭhapāla is the son of the leading clan in this same Thullakoṭṭhita. Master

Raṭṭhapālahasnotundergoneanylossofwealth.Whathasheknown,seen,or

heardthathehasgoneforthfromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness?

33. “And what is loss of relatives? Here, Master Raṭṭhapāla, someone has

manyfriendsandcompanions,kinsmenandrelatives.Graduallythoserelatives

of his dwindle away. He considers thus: ‘Formerly I had many friends and

companions, kinsmen and relatives. Gradually those relatives of mine have

dwindled away. It is no longer easy for me to acquire new wealth ... into

homelessness.’Becausehehasundergonethatlossofrelatives…hegoesforth

fromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.Thisiscalledlossofrelatives.But

MasterRaṭṭhapālahasmanyfriendsandcompanions,kinsmenandrelatives,in

this same Thullakoṭṭhita. Master Raṭṭhapāla has not undergone any loss of

relatives. What has he known, seen, or heard thathe has gone forth from the

householdlifeintohomelessness?

34.“Master Raṭṭhapāla, theseare the four kinds of loss. Because they have

undergone these four kinds of loss, some peoplehere shave offtheir hair and

beard, put on the ochre robe, and go forth from the household life into

homelessness.MasterRaṭṭhapālahasnotundergoneanyofthese.Whathashe

known, seen, or heard that he has gone forth from the household life into

homelessness?”

35. “Great king, there are four summaries of the Dhamma that have been

taught by the Blessed One who knows and sees, the Arahant, the Perfectly

EnlightenedOne.Knowingandseeingandhearingthem,Iwentforthfromthe

householdlifeintohomelessness.Whatarethefour?

36. (1) “‘[Life in] any world is unstable, it is swept away’: this is the first

summaryoftheDhammataughtbytheBlessedOnewhoknowsandsees,the

Arahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne.Knowingandseeingandhearingthis,I

wentforthfromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.

(2)“‘[Lifein]anyworldhasnoshelterandnoprotector’:thisisthesecond

summaryoftheDhammataughtbytheBlessedOnewhoknowsandsees.…

(3)“‘[Lifein]anyworldhasnothingofitsown;onehastoleaveallandpass

on’:thisisthethirdsummaryoftheDhammataughtbytheBlessedOnewho

knowsandsees.…

(4)“‘[Lifein]anyworldisincomplete,insatiate,theslaveofcraving’:thisis

thefourthsummaryoftheDhammataughtbytheBlessedOnewhoknowsand

sees.…

37.“Greatking,thesearethefoursummariesoftheDhammathathavebeen

taught by the Blessed One who knows and sees, the Arahant, the Perfectly

EnlightenedOne.Knowingandseeingandhearingthem,Iwentforthfromthe

householdlifeintohomelessness.”

38.“MasterRaṭṭhapālasaid:‘[Lifein]anyworldisunstable,itissweptaway.’

Howshouldthemeaningofthatstatementbeunderstood?”

“Whatdoyouthink,greatking?Whenyouweretwentyortwenty-fiveyears

old, were you an expert rider of elephants, an expert horse-man, an expert

charioteer, an expert archer, an expert swordsman, strong in thighs and arms,

sturdy,capableinbattle?”

“Icertainlywas,MasterRaṭṭhapāla.SometimesIwonderifIhadsupernormal

powerthen.Idonotseeanyonewhocouldequalmeinstrength.”

“Whatdoyouthink,greatking?Areyounowasstronginthighsandarms,as

sturdyandascapableinbattle?”

“No,MasterRaṭṭhapāla.NowIamold,aged,burdenedwithyears,advanced

inlife,cometothelaststage;myyearshaveturnedeighty.SometimesImeanto

putmyfoothereandIputmyfootsomewhereelse.”

“Greatking,itwasonaccountofthisthattheBlessedOnewhoknowsand

sees,the Arahant,the PerfectlyEnlightened One, said: ‘[Lifein] anyworld is

unstable,itissweptaway’;andwhenIknew,saw,andheardthis,Iwentforth

fromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.”

“Itis wonderful,Master Raṭṭhapāla,it is marvelous how well thathas been

expressedbytheBlessedOnewhoknowsandsees,theArahant,thePerfectly

EnlightenedOne:‘[Lifein]anyworldisunstable,itissweptaway.’Itisindeed

so!

39.“MasterRaṭṭhapāla,thereexistinthiscourtelephanttroopsandcavalry

and chariot troops and infantry, which will serve to subdue any threats to us.

Now Master Raṭṭhapāla said: ‘[Life in] any world has no shelter and no

protector.’Howshouldthemeaningofthatstatementbeunderstood?”

“Whatdoyouthink,greatking?Doyouhaveanychronicailment?”

“Ihaveachronicwindailment,MasterRaṭṭhapāla.Sometimesmyfriendsand

companions, kinsmen and relatives, stand around me, thinking: ‘Now King

Koravyaisabouttodie,nowKingKoravyaisabouttodie!’”

“What do you think, great king? Can you command your friends and

companions, your kinsmen and relatives: ‘Come, my good friends and

companions, my kinsmen and relatives. All of you present share this painful

feelingsothatImayfeellesspain’?Ordoyouhavetofeelthatpainyourself

alone?”

“I cannot command my friends and companions, my kinsmen and relatives

thus,MasterRaṭṭhapāla.Ihavetofeelthatpainalone.”

“Greatking,itwasonaccountofthisthattheBlessedOnewhoknowsand

sees,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne,said:‘[Lifein]anyworldhas

noshelterandnoprotector’;andwhenIknew,saw,andheardthis,Iwentforth

fromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.”

“Itis wonderful,Master Raṭṭhapāla,it is marvelous how well thathas been

expressedbytheBlessedOnewhoknowsandsees,theArahant,the Perfectly

Enlightened One: ‘[Life in] any world has no shelter and no protector.’ It is

indeedso!

40. “Master Raṭṭhapāla, there exist in this court abundant gold coins and

bullionstoredawayinvaultsandlofts.NowMasterRaṭṭhapālasaid:‘[Lifein]

anyworldhasnothingofitsown;onehastoleaveallandpasson.’Howshould

themeaningofthatstatementbeunderstood?”

“What do you think, great king? You now enjoy yourself provided and

endowedwiththefivecordsofsensualpleasure,butcanyoubecertainthatin

the life to come you willlikewise enjoyyourself provided and endowed with

thesesamefivecordsofsensualpleasure?Orwillotherstakeoverthisproperty,

whileyouwillhavetopassonaccordingtoyouractions?”

“I cannot be certain of what will happen in the life to come, Master

Raṭṭhapāla.Onthecontrary,otherswilltakeoverthispropertywhileIshallhave

topassonaccordingtomyactions.”

“Greatking,itwasonaccountofthisthattheBlessedOnewhoknowsand

sees,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne,said:‘[Lifein]anyworldhas

nothingofitsown;onehastoleaveallandpasson’;andwhenIknew,saw,and

heardthis,Iwentforthfromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.”

“Itis wonderful,Master Raṭṭhapāla,it is marvelous how well thathas been

expressedbytheBlessedOnewhoknowsandsees,theArahant,thePerfectly

EnlightenedOne:‘[Lifein]anyworldhasnothingofitsown;onehastoleave

allandpasson.’Itisindeedso!

41.“NowMasterRaṭṭhapālasaid:‘[Lifein]anyworldisincomplete,insatiate,

theslaveofcraving.’Howshouldthemeaningofthatstatementbeunderstood?”

“Whatdoyouthink,greatking?DoyoureignovertherichKurucountry?”

“Yes,MasterRaṭṭhapāla,Ido.”

“Whatdoyouthink,greatking?Supposeatrustworthyandreliablemancame

toyoufromtheeastandsaid:‘Pleaseknow,greatking,thatIhavecomefrom

theeast,andthereIsawalargecountry,powerfulandrich,verypopulousand

crowded with people. There are plenty of elephant troops there, plenty of

cavalry,chariottroops,andinfantry;thereisplentyofivorythere,andplentyof

gold coins and bullion both unworked and worked, and plenty of women for

wives.Withyourpresentforcesyoucanconquerit.Conqueritthen,greatking.’

Whatwouldyoudo?”

“Wewouldconqueritandreignoverit,MasterRaṭṭhapāla.”

“Whatdoyouthink,greatking?Supposeatrustworthyandreliablemancame

toyoufromthewest...fromthenorth...fromthesouth...fromacrossthesea

andsaid: ‘Pleaseknow,great king, that I have comefrom acrossthe sea,and

thereIsawalargecountry,powerfulandrich.…Conqueritthen,greatking.’

Whatwouldyoudo?”

“Wewouldconquerittooandreignoverit,MasterRaṭṭhapāla.”

“Greatking,itwasonaccountofthisthattheBlessedOnewhoknowsand

sees,the Arahant,the PerfectlyEnlightened One, said: ‘[Lifein] anyworld is

incomplete, insatiate, the slave of craving’; and when I knew, saw, and heard

this,Iwentforthfromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.”

“Itis wonderful,Master Raṭṭhapāla,it is marvelous how well thathas been

expressedbytheBlessedOnewhoknowsandsees,theArahant,thePerfectly

Enlightened One: ‘[Life in] any world is incomplete, insatiate, the slave of

craving.’Itisindeedso!”

(fromMN82:RaṭṭhapālaSutta;II65–82)

7.THEDANGERINVIEWS

(1)AMiscellanyonWrongView

“Monks, I do not see even one other thing on account of which unarisen

unwholesomequalitiesofmindariseandarisenunwholesomequalitiesofmind

increaseandexpandsomuchasonaccountofwrongview.

Foroneofwrong

view, unarisen unwholesome qualities of mind arise and arisen unwholesome

qualitiesofmindincreaseandexpand.

“Monks, I do not see even one other thing on account of which unarisen

wholesome qualities of mind do not arise and arisen wholesome qualities of

minddiminishsomuchasonaccountofwrongview.Foroneofwrongview,

unarisen wholesome qualities of mind do not arise and arisen wholesome

qualitiesofminddiminish.

“Monks, I do not see even one other thing on account of which, with the

breakupofthebody,afterdeath,beingsarereborninastateofmisery,inabad

destination,inthelowerworld,inhell,somuchasonaccountofwrongview.

Possessing wrong view, with the breakup of the body, after death, beings are

reborninastateofmisery,inabaddestination,inthelowerworld,inhell.

“Monks, for a person of wrong view, whatever bodily, verbal, or mental

conduct he undertakes in accordance with that view, and whatever volition,

aspiration,wish,andvolitionalformationsheengendersinaccordancewiththat

view,allleadtowhatisundesirable,unwanted,anddisagreeable,toharmand

suffering. For what reason? Because the view is bad. Just as, when a seed of

neem,bittercucumber,orbittergourdisplantedinmoistsoil,ittransformsany

nutrimentitobtainsfromthesoilandthewaterintoafruitwithabitter,harsh,

anddisagreeabletaste,evensoisitforapersonofwrongview.Forwhatreason?

Becausetheviewisbad.”

(AN1:xvii,1,3,7,9;I30–32)

(2)TheBlindMenandtheElephant

On one occasion the Blessed One was living at Sāvatthī in Jeta’s Grove,

Anāthapiṇḍika’s Park. Now at that time a number of ascetics and brahmins,

wanderersofothersects,werelivingaroundSāvatthī.Theyheldvariousviews,

beliefs,andopinions,andpropagatedvariousviews.Andtheywerequarrelsome,

disputatious, wrangling, wounding each other with verbal darts, saying, “The

Dhammaislikethis,theDhammaisnotlikethat!TheDhammaisnotlikethis,

theDhammaislikethat!”

Then a number of monks entered Sāvatthī on almsround. Having returned,

aftertheirmealtheyapproachedtheBlessedOne,paidhomagetohim,satdown

tooneside,andtoldhimwhattheyhadseen.[TheBlessedOnesaid:]

“Monks,wanderersofothersectsareblindandsightless.Theydonotknow

whatisbeneficialandharmful.TheydonotknowwhatistheDhammaandwhat

isnottheDhamma,andthustheyaresoquarrelsomeanddisputatious.

“Formerly, monks, there was a king in Sāvatthī who addressed a man and

asked him to round up all the persons in the city who were blind from birth.

Whenthemanhaddoneso,thekingaskedthemantoshowtheblindmenan

elephant. To some of the blind men he presented the head of the elephant, to

sometheear,toothersatusk,thetrunk,thebody,afoot,thehindquarters,the

tail, or the tuft at the end of the tail. And to each one he said, ‘This is an

elephant.’

“Whenhereportedtothekingwhathehaddone,thekingwenttotheblind

menandaskedthem,‘Tellme,blindmen,whatisanelephantlike?’

“Thosewhohadbeenshowntheheadoftheelephantreplied,‘Anelephant,

yourmajesty,isjustlikeawaterjar.’Thosewhohadbeenshowntheearreplied,

‘Anelephantisjustlikeawinnowingbasket.’Thosewhohadbeenshownthe

tuskreplied,‘Anelephantisjustlikeaplowshare.’Thosewhohadbeenshown

thetrunk replied, ‘An elephant is just like a plow pole.’Those who had been

shownthebodyreplied,‘Anelephantisjustlikeastoreroom.’Andeachofthe

otherslikewisedescribedtheelephantintermsoftheparttheyhadbeenshown.

“Then, saying, ‘An elephant is like this, an elephant is not like that! An

elephantis not like this, an elephant is like that!’they fought each other with

theirfists. And the king was delighted.Even so, monks, are the wanderers of

othersectsblindandsightless,andthustheybecomequarrelsome,disputatious,

andwrangling,woundingeachotherwithverbaldarts.”

(Ud6:4;67–69)

(3)HeldbyTwoKindsofViews

“Monks,heldbytwokindsofviews,somedevasandhumanbeingsholdback

andsomeoverreach;onlythosewithvisionsee.

“Andhow, monks,dosomeholdback?Devasandhumanbeings delight in

existence,aredelightedwithexistence,rejoiceinexistence.WhentheDhamma

istaughttothemforthecessationofexistence,theirmindsdonotenterintoit,

acquireconfidenceinit,settleuponit,orresolveuponit.Thus,monks,dosome

holdback.

“Andhow,monks,dosomeoverreach?Nowsomearetroubled,ashamed,and

disgustedbythisverysameexistenceandtheyrejoiceinnonexistence,saying,

‘Inasmuchasthisself,goodsirs,isannihilatedanddestroyedwiththebreakup

ofthebodyanddoesnotexistafterdeath,thisispeaceful,thisisexcellent,this

isjustso!’Thus,monks,dosomeoverreach.

“Andhow,monksdothosewithvisionsee?Here,amonkseeswhathascome

to be as having come to be. Having seen it thus, he practices the course for

disenchantment,fordispassion,forthecessationofwhathascometobe.Thus,

monks,dothosewithvisionsee.”

(It49;43–44)

8.FROMTHEDIVINEREALMSTOTHEINFERNAL

“Monks,therearethesefourkindsofpersonsfoundexistingintheworld.What

four?

“Here,monks,somepersondwellspervadingonequarterwithamindimbued

withloving-kindness,likewisethesecondquarter,thethird,andthefourth.Thus

above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he dwells

pervading the entire world with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, vast,

exalted, measureless, without hostility, without ill will. He relishes it, takes a

likingtoit,andisthrilledbyit.Ifheisfirminit,resolvesuponit,oftendwells

init,andhasnotlostitwhenhedies,heisrebornincompanionshipwiththe

devas of Brahmā’s company. The lifespan of those devas is an eon. The

worldling remains there all his life, and when he has completed the entire

lifespanofthosedevas,hegoestohell,totheanimalrealm,andtothedomainof

spirits.ButtheBlessedOne’sdiscipleremainsthereallhislife,andwhenhehas

completedtheentirelifespanofthosedevas,heattainsfinalNibbānainthatvery

same state of existence. This is the difference, the disparity, the distinction

between the instructed noble disciple and the uninstructed worldling, that is,

withregardtodestinationandrebirth.

“Here,monks,somepersondwellspervadingonequarterwithamindimbued

with compassion, likewise the second quarter, the third, and the fourth. Thus

above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he dwells

pervadingtheentireworldwithamindimbuedwithcompassion,vast,exalted,

measureless,withouthostility,withoutillwill.Herelishesit,takesalikingtoit,

andisthrilledbyit.Ifheisfirminit,resolvesuponit,oftendwellsinit,andhas

not lost it when he dies, he is reborn in companionship with the devas of

streaming radiance. The lifespan of those devas is two eons. The worldling

remainsthereallhislife,andwhenhehascompletedtheentirelife-spanofthose

devas,hegoestohell,totheanimalrealm,andtothedomainofspirits.Butthe

BlessedOne’sdiscipleremainsthereallhislife,andwhenhehascompletedthe

entirelifespanofthosedevas,heattainsfinalNibbānainthatverysamestateof

existence. This is the difference, the disparity, the distinction between the

instructednoblediscipleandtheuninstructedworldling,thatis,withregardto

destinationandrebirth.

“Here,monks,somepersondwellspervadingonequarterwithamindimbued

with altruisticjoy, likewise the second quarter, the third, and the fourth. Thus

above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he dwells

pervadingtheentireworldwithamindimbuedwithaltruisticjoy,vast,exalted,

measureless,withouthostility,withoutillwill.Herelishesit,takesalikingtoit,

andisthrilledbyit.Ifheisfirminit,resolvesuponit,oftendwellsinit,andhas

not lost it when he dies, he is reborn in companionship with the devas of

refulgentglory.Thelifespanofthosedevasisfoureons.Theworldlingremains

thereallhislife,andwhenhehascompletedtheentirelife-spanofthosedevas,

hegoestohell,totheanimalrealm,andtothedomainofspirits.ButtheBlessed

One’sdiscipleremainsthereallhislife,andwhenhehascompletedtheentire

lifespan of those devas, he attains final Nibbāna in that very same state of

existence. This is the difference, the disparity, the distinction between the

instructednoblediscipleandtheuninstructedworldling,thatis,withregardto

destinationandrebirth.

“Here,monks,somepersondwellspervadingonequarterwithamindimbued

with equanimity, likewise the second quarter, the third, and the fourth. Thus

above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he dwells

pervadingtheentireworldwithamindimbuedwithequanimity,vast,exalted,

measureless,withouthostility,withoutillwill.Herelishesit,takesalikingtoit,

andisthrilledbyit.Ifheisfirminit,resolvesuponit,oftendwellsinit,andhas

notlostitwhenhedies,heisrebornincompanionshipwiththedevasofgreat

fruit.Thelifespanofthosedevasisfivehundredeons.Theworldlingremains

thereallhislife,andwhenhehascompletedtheentirelife-spanofthosedevas,

hegoestohell,totheanimalrealm,andtothedomainofspirits.ButtheBlessed

One’sdiscipleremainsthereallhislife,andwhenhehascompletedtheentire

lifespan of those devas, he attains final Nibbāna in that very same state of

existence. This is the difference, the disparity, the distinction between the

instructednoblediscipleandtheuninstructedworldling,thatis,withregardto

destinationandrebirth.

“These,monks,arethefourkindsofpersonsfoundexistingintheworld.”

(AN4:125;II128–29)

9.THEPERILSOFSAMSĀRA

(1)TheStreamofTears

“Monks, this saṃsāra is without discoverable beginning. A first point is not

discerned of beings roaming and wandering on hindered by ignorance and

fettered by craving. What do you think, monks, which is more: the stream of

tearsthatyouhaveshedasyouroamedandwanderedthroughthislongcourse,

weeping and wailing because of being united with the disagreeable and

separatedfromtheagreeable—thisorthewaterinthefourgreatoceans?”“As

weunderstandtheDhammataughtbytheBlessedOne,venerablesir,thestream

oftearsthatwehaveshedasweroamedandwanderedthroughthislongcourse,

weeping and wailing because of being united with the disagreeable and

separatedfromtheagreeable—thisaloneismorethanthewaterinthefourgreat

oceans.” “Good, good, monks! It is good that you understand the Dhamma

taught by me in such a way. The stream of tears that you have shed as you

roamedandwanderedthroughthislongcourse,weepingandwailingbecauseof

beingunitedwiththedisagreeableandseparatedfromtheagreeable—thisalone

ismorethanthewaterinthefourgreatoceans.Foralongtime,monks,youhave

experiencedthedeathofamother;asyouhaveexperiencedthis,weepingand

wailing because of being united with the disagreeable and separated from the

agreeable,thestreamoftearsthatyouhaveshedismorethanthewaterinthe

fourgreatoceans.

“Fora longtime, monks,you haveexperienced thedeath of a father... the

deathofabrother...thedeathofasister...thedeathofason...thedeathofa

daughter...thelossofrelatives...thelossofwealth...lossthroughillness;as

youhaveexperiencedthis,weepingandwailingbecauseofbeingunitedwiththe

disagreeableandseparatedfromtheagreeable,thestreamoftearsthatyouhave

shedismorethanthewaterinthefourgreatoceans.Forwhatreason?Because,

monks, this saṃsāra is without discoverable beginning…. Itis enough to

experience revulsion toward all formations, enough to become dispassionate

towardthem,enoughtobeliberatedfromthem.”

(SN15:3;II179–80)

(2)TheStreamofBlood

WhiletheBlessedOnewasdwellingatRājagahaintheBambooGrove,thirty

monks from Pāvā approached him—all forest dwellers, almsfood eaters, rag-

robe wearers, three-robe users, yet all still with fetters.

 Having approached,

theypaidhomagetotheBlessedOneandsatdowntooneside.Thenitoccurred

to the Blessed One: “These thirty monks from Pāvā are all forest dwellers,

almsfoodeaters,rag-robewearers,three-robeusers,yetallarestillwithfetters.

LetmeteachthemtheDhammainsuchawaythatwhiletheyaresittinginthese

veryseatstheirmindswillbeliberatedfromthetaintsbynonclinging.”

ThentheBlessedOneaddressedthosemonksthus:“Monks!”

“Venerablesir!”thosemonksreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:

“Monks,thissaṃsāraiswithoutdiscoverable beginning.Afirstpointisnot

discerned of beings roaming and wandering on, hindered by ignorance and

fettered by craving. What do you think, monks, which is more: the stream of

bloodthatyouhaveshedwhenyouwerebeheadedasyouroamedandwandered

throughthislongcourse—thisorthewaterinthefourgreatoceans?”

“AsweunderstandtheDhammataughtbytheBlessedOne,venerablesir,the

streamofbloodthatwehaveshedwhenwewerebeheadedasweroamedand

wanderedthroughthislongcourse—thisaloneismorethanthewaterinthefour

greatoceans.”

“Good,good,monks!ItisgoodthatyouunderstandtheDhammataughtby

meinsuchaway.Thestreamofbloodthatyouhaveshedasyouroamedand

wanderedthroughthislongcourse—thisaloneismorethanthewaterinthefour

greatoceans.Foralongtime,monks,youhavebeencows,andwhenascows

youwerebeheaded,thestreamofbloodthatyoushedisgreaterthanthewaters

inthefourgreatoceans.Foralong time you havebeenbuffalo,sheep,goats,

deer,chickens,andpigs….Foralongtimeyouhavebeenarrestedasburglars,

highwaymen,andadulterers,andwhenyouwerebeheaded,thestreamofblood

thatyoushedisgreaterthanthewaterinthefourgreatoceans.Forwhatreason?

Because,monks,thissaṃsāraiswithoutdiscoverablebeginning.Afirstpointis

notdiscernedofbeingsroamingandwanderingon,hinderedbyignoranceand

fettered by craving. For such a long time, monks, you have experienced

suffering, anguish, and disaster, and swelled the cemetery. It is enough to

become disenchanted with all formations, enough to become dispassionate

towardthem,enoughtobeliberatedfromthem.”

This is what the Blessed One said. Elated, those monks delighted in the

BlessedOne’sstatement.Andwhilethisexpositionwasbeingspoken,theminds

ofthethirtymonksfromPāvāwereliberatedfromthetaintsbynonclinging.

(SN15:13;II187–89)

VII.ThePathtoLiberation

INTRODUCTION

Inthischapter,wecometotheuniquedistinguishingfeatureoftheBuddha’s

teaching, its “supramundane” or “world-transcending” (lokuttara) path to

liberation. This path buildsupon the transformed understanding and deepened

perspective on the nature of the world that arise from our recognition of the

perilsinsensualpleasures,theinevitabilityofdeath,andtheviciousnatureof

saṃsāra, themes that we surveyed in the previous chapter. It aims to lead the

practitionertothestateofliberationthatliesbeyondallrealmsofconditioned

existence,tothesamesorrowlessandstainlessblissofNibbānathattheBuddha

himselfattainedonthenightofhisenlightenment.

ThischapterpresentstextsthatofferabroadoverviewoftheBuddha’sworld-

transcendingpath;thefollowingtwochapterswillbringtogethertextsthatfocus

morefinelyonthetrainingofthemindandthecultivationofwisdom,thetwo

majorbranchesof the world-transcendingpath.I begin,however,withseveral

suttasthatareintendedtoclarifythepurposeofthispath,illuminatingitfrom

differentangles.TextVII,1(1), The Shorter Discourse to Māluṅkyāputta (MN

63),showsthattheBuddhistpathisnotdesignedtoprovidetheoreticalanswers

tophilosophicalquestions.InthissuttathemonkMāluṅkyāputtaapproachesthe

Buddhaanddemandsanswerstotenspeculativequestions,threateningtoleave

the Saṅgha if this demand isnot satisfied.Scholars have debated whether the

Buddha refused to answer such questions because they are in principle

unanswerableorsimplybecausetheyareirrelevanttoapracticalresolutionof

theproblemofsuffering.TwocollectionsofsuttasintheSaṃyuttaNikāya—SN

33:1–10andSN44:7–8—makeitclearthattheBuddha’s“silence”hadadeeper

basisthanmerepragmaticconcerns.These suttas showthatallsuchquestions

are based on an underlying assumption that existence is to be interpreted in

termsofaselfandaworldinwhichtheselfissituated.Sincethesepremisesare

invalid,noanswerframedintermsofthesepremisescanbevalid,andthusthe

Buddhamustrejecttheveryquestionsthemselves.

However,whiletheBuddhahadphilosophicalgroundsforrefusingtoanswer

thesequestions,healsorejectedthembecauseheconsideredtheobsessionwith

theirsolutionstobeirrelevanttothequestforreleasefromsuffering.Thisreason

is the evident point of the discourse to Māluṅkyāputta, with its well-known

simileofthemanshotbythepoisonedarrow.Whetheranyoftheseviewsistrue

ornot,theBuddhasays,“thereisbirth,thereisaging,thereisdeath,thereare

sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair, the destruction of which I

prescribe here and now.” Against the picture of the saṃsāric background

sketched at the end of the previous chapter, this statement now takes on an

expandedmeaning:the“destructionofbirth,aging,anddeath”isnotmerelythe

endofsufferinginasinglelifetime,buttheendoftheimmeasurablesufferingof

repeatedbirth,aging,anddeaththatwehaveundergoneinthecountlesseonsof

saṃsāra.

TextVII,1(2),TheGreater Discourse on the Simileof theHeartwood (MN

29), clarifies from a different angle the Buddha’s purpose in expounding his

world-transcending Dhamma. The sutta is about a “clansman” who has gone

forth from the household life into homelessness intenton reaching the end of

suffering.Thoughearnestinpurposeatthetimeofhisordination,onceheattains

somesuccess, whether a lowerachievement like gain and honor or a superior

one like concentration and insight, he becomes complacent and neglects his

originalpurposeinenteringtheBuddha’spath.TheBuddhadeclaresthatnone

of these stations along the way—not moral discipline, concentration, or even

knowledge and vision—is the final goal of the spiritual life. The goal, its

heartwoodoressentialpurpose,is“unshakableliberationofthemind,”andhe

urgesthosewhohaveenteredthepathnottobesatisfiedwithanythingless.

TextVII,1(3)isaselectionofsuttasfrom“TheConnectedDiscoursesonthe

Path” (Maggasạyutta). These suttas state that the purpose of practicing the

spiritual life under the Buddha is “the fading away of lust, … final Nibbāna

withoutclinging,”theNobleEightfoldPathbeingthewaytoattaineachofthese

aims.

TheNobleEightfoldPathistheclassicalformulationofthewaytoliberation,

as is already clear from the Buddha’s first sermon, in which he calls the

Eightfold Path the way to the cessation of suffering. Text VII,2 gives formal

definitionsoftheindividualpathfactorsbutdoesnotshowconcretelyhowtheir

practiceistobeintegratedintothelifeofadisciple.Thedetailedapplicationwill

befilledoutlaterinthischapterandinchaptersVIIIandIX.

TextVII,3throwsadifferentspotlightonthepaththanweareaccustomedto

hearinstandardBuddhistrhetoric.Whileweareoftentoldthatthepracticeof

theBuddhistpathdependsentirelyonpersonaleffort,thissuttaemphasizesthe

importanceofspiritualfriendship.TheBuddhadeclaresthatspiritualfriendship

is not merely “half the spiritual life” but the whole of it, for the endeavor to

attain spiritual perfection is not a purely solitary enterprise but occurs in

dependenceonclosepersonalties.Spiritualfriendshipgivesthepracticeofthe

Dhamma an inescapably human dimension and welds the body of Buddhist

practitioners into a community united both vertically by the relationship of

teacher to students and horizontally by friendships among peers treading a

sharedpath.

Contrarytoacommonassumption,theeightpathfactorsarenotstepstobe

followedinsequence,oneafteranother.Theyaremoreappropriatelydescribed

as components than as steps. Optimally, all eight factors should be present

simultaneously, each making its own distinctive contribution, like eight

interwovenstrandsofacablethatgivethecablemaximumstrength.However,

untilthatstageisreached,itisinevitablethatthefactorsofthepathexhibitsome

degree of sequence in their development. The eight factors are commonly

distributedintothreegroupsasfollows:

1.themoraldisciplinegroup(sīlakkhandha),madeupofrightspeech,right

action,andrightlivelihood;

2.theconcentrationgroup(sam̄dhikkhandha),madeupofrighteffort,right

mindfulness,andrightconcentration;

3. the wisdom group (paññākkhandha), made up of right view and right

intention.

WithintheNikāyas,however,thiscorrelationoccursonlyonce(atMN44;I

301),whereitisascribedtothenunDhammadinnā,nottotheBuddhahimself.It

mightbesaidthatthetwowisdomfactorsareplacedatthebeginningbecausea

preliminaryrightviewandrightintentionarerequiredattheoutsetofthepath,

right view providing the conceptual understanding of Buddhist principles that

guides the development of the other path factors, right intention the proper

motivationanddirectionforthedevelopmentofthepath.

In the Nikāyas, the Buddha often expounds the practice of the path as a

gradualtraining(anupubbasikkhā)thatunfoldsinstagesfromthefirststeptothe

finalgoal.Thisgradualtrainingisafinersubdivisionofthethreefolddivisionof

the path into moral discipline, concentration, and wisdom. Invariably in the

suttas the exposition of the gradual training begins with the going forth into

homelessnessandtheadoptionofthelifestyleofabhikkhu,aBuddhistmonk.

This immediately calls attention to the importance of the monastic life in the

Buddha’s pragmatic vision. In principle the entire practice of the Noble

EightfoldPathisopentopeoplefromanymodeoflife,monasticorlay,andthe

Buddhaconfirmsthatmanyamonghislayfollowerswereaccomplishedinthe

Dhammaandhadattainedthefirstthreeofthefourstagesofawakening,upto

nonreturning (an̄ḡm̄; Theravāda commentators say that lay followers can also

attainthefourthstage,arahantship,buttheydosoeitheronthevergeofdeathor

afterattainmentimmediatelyseekthegoingforth).Thefactremains,however,

thatthehouseholdlifeinevitablyfostersamultitudeofmundaneconcernsand

personal attachments that impede the single-hearted quest for liberation. Thus

when the Buddha set out on his own noble quest he did so by going into

homelessness,andafterhisenlightenment,asapracticalwaytohelpothers,he

established the Saṅgha, the order of monks and nuns, for those who want to

devotethemselvesfullytotheDhamma unhindered bythecaresofhousehold

life.

The gradual training occurs in two versions: a longer version in the Dīgha

Nikāya and a middle-length version in the Majjhima Nikāya. The principal

differences are: (1) the longer version has a more detailed treatment of the

observancesthatpertaintomonasticetiquetteandasceticself-restraint;(2)the

longerversionincludeseighttypesofhigherknowledgewhilethemiddle-length

versionhasthreetypes.However,asthesethreetypesaretheonesmentionedin

theBuddha’saccountofhisownenlightenment(seeTextII,3(2)),theyareby

farthemostimportant.Themainparadigmforthelongerversionofthegradual

trainingisfoundatDN2;themiddle-lengthversionisatMN27andMN51,

with variants at MN 38, MN 39, MN 53, MN 107, and MN 125. Here, Text

VII,4includesthewholeofMN27,whichembedsthetraininginthesimileof

theelephant’sfootprintthatgivesthesuttaitsname.TextVII,5,anexcerptfrom

MN 39, repeats the higher stages of the training as described in MN 27, but

includestheimpressivesimilesnotincludedinthelatterversion.

ThesequenceopenswiththeappearanceofaTathāgataintheworldandhis

exposition of the Dhamma. Having heard this, the disciple acquires faith and

followstheTeacherintohomelessness.Hethenundertakestherulesofdiscipline

thatpromotethepurificationofconductandtherightlivelihoodofanascetic.

The next three steps—contentment, restraint of the sense faculties, and

mindfulness and clear comprehension—internalize the process of purification

andtherebybridgethetransitionfrommoraldisciplinetoconcentration.

The section on the abandonment of the five hindrances deals with the

preliminary training in concentration. The five hindrances—sensual desire, ill

will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness and remorse, and doubt—are the

principalobstaclestomeditativedevelopment,andthustheymustberemoved

forthemindtobecomecollectedandunified.Thestockpassageonthegradual

training treats the overcoming of the hindrances only schematically, but other

texts in the Nikāyas provide more practical instructions, while the Pāli

commentariesofferevenmoredetails.ThesimilesintheversionofMN39—see

TextVII,5—illustratethejoyfulsenseoffreedomthatonewinsbyovercoming

thehindrances.

The next stage in the sequence describes the attainment of the jhānas,

profoundstatesofconcentrationinwhichthemindbecomesfullyabsorbedinits

object.TheBuddhaenumeratesfourjhānas,namedsimplyaftertheirnumerical

positionintheseries,eachmorerefinedandelevatedthanitspredecessor.The

jhānasarealwaysdescribedbythesameformulas,whichinseveralsuttasare

augmentedbysimilesofgreatbeauty;again,seeTextVII,5.Althoughwisdom

ratherthanconcentrationisthecriticalfactorintheattainmentofenlightenment,

theBuddhainvariablyincludesthejhānasinthegradualtrainingforatleasttwo

reasons:first,becausetheycontributetotheintrinsicperfectionofthepath;and

second, because the deep concentration they induce serves as a basis for the

arisingofinsight.TheBuddhacallsthejhānasthe“footstepsoftheTathāgata”

(MN27.19–22)andshowsthemtobeprecursorsoftheblissofNibbānathatlies

attheendofthetraining.

Fromthefourthjhānathreealternativelinesoffurtherdevelopmentbecome

possible.Inanumberoftextsoutsidethestockpassageonthegradualtraining

theBuddhamentionsfourmeditativestatesthatcontinuethementalunification

established by the jhānas. These states, described as “the liberations that are

peacefulandformless,”arefurtherrefinementsofconcentration.Distinguished

fromthejhānasbytheirtranscendenceofthesubtlementalimagethatservesas

theobjectinthejhānas,theyarenamedthebaseoftheinfinityofspace,thebase

oftheinfinityofconsciousness,thebaseofnothingness,andthebaseofneither-

perception-nor-nonperception.

Asecond lineof development is the acquisitionof supernormalknowledge.

TheBuddhafrequentlyreferstoasetofsixtypes,whichcometobecalledthe

sixkindsofdirectknowledge(chaḷabhiññā).Thelastofthese,theknowledgeof

thedestructionofthetaints,is“supramundane”orworld-transcendingandthus

markstheculminationofthethirdlineofdevelopment.Buttheotherfiveareall

mundane, products of the extraordinarily powerful mental concentration

achievedinthefourthjhāna:thesupernormalpowers,thedivineear,theability

toreadthemindsofothers,therecollectionofpastlives,andtheknowledgeof

thepassingawayandrebirthofbeings(seeTextVIII,4).

The jhānas and the formless attainments by themselves do not issue in

enlightenmentandliberation.Thoughloftyandpeaceful,theycanonlysilence

thedefilementsthatsustaintheroundofrebirthsbutcannoteradicatethem.To

uproot the defilements at the most fundamental level, and thereby arrive at

enlightenmentandliberation,themeditativeprocessmustbedirectedtoathird

line of development. This is the contemplation of “things as they really are,”

which results in increasingly deeper insights into the nature of existence and

culminatesinthefinalgoal,theattainmentofarahantship.

ThislineofdevelopmentistheonetheBuddhapursuesinthepassageonthe

gradual training. He prefaces it with descriptions of two of the direct

knowledges, the recollection of past lives and the knowledge of the passing

away and rebirth of beings. The three together figured prominently in the

Buddha’sownenlightenment—aswesawinTextII,3(2)—andarecollectively

calledthethreetrueknowledges(tevijjā).Althoughthefirsttwoarenotessential

to the realization of arahantship, the Buddha probably includes them here

because they reveal the truly vast and profound dimensions of suffering in

saṃsāra,therebypreparingthemindforthepenetrationoftheFourNobleTruths

bywhichthatsufferingisdiagnosedandsurmounted.

Thepassageonthegradualtrainingdoesnotexplicitlyshowtheprocessof

contemplation by which the meditator develops insight. The whole process is

only implied by the mention of its final fruit, called the knowledge of the

destruction of the taints (āsavakkhayañāṇa). The āsavas or taints are a

classification of defilements considered in their role of sustaining the forward

movementoftheprocessofbirthanddeath.Thecommentariesderivetheword

fromarootsumeaning“toflow.”Scholarsdifferastowhethertheflowimplied

bytheprefixāisinwardoroutward;hencesomehaverendereditas“influxes”

or“influences,”othersas“outflows”or“effluents.”Astockpassageinthesuttas

indicates the term’s real significance independently of etymology when it

describes the āsavas as states “that defile, bring renewal of existence, give

trouble,ripeninsuffering,andleadtofuturebirth,aging,anddeath”(MN36.47;

I 250). Thus other translators, bypassing the literal meaning, have rendered it

“cankers,”“corruptions,”or“taints.”ThethreetaintsmentionedintheNikāyas

are respectively synonyms for craving for sensual pleasures, craving for

existence,andignorance.Whenthedisciple’smindisliberatedfromthetaints

bythecompletionofthepathofarahantship,hereviewshisnewlywonfreedom

and roars his lion’s roar: “Birth is destroyed, the spiritual life has been lived,

whathadtobedonehasbeendone;thereisnomorecomingbacktoanystateof

being.”

VII.THEPATHTOLIBERATION

1.WHYDOESONEENTERTHEPATH?

(1)TheArrowofBirth,Aging,andDeath

1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatSāvatthīin

Jeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’sPark.

2. Then, while the Venerable Māluṅkyāputta was alone in meditation, the

followingthoughtaroseinhismind:

“ThesespeculativeviewshavebeenleftundeclaredbytheBlessedOne,set

asideandrejectedbyhim,namely:‘theworldiseternal’and‘theworldisnot

eternal’;‘theworldisfinite’and‘theworldisinfinite’;‘thesoulisthesameas

thebody’ and‘the soulisone thingand thebody another’;and ‘afterdeath a

Tathāgataexists’and‘afterdeathaTathāgatadoesnotexist’and‘afterdeatha

Tathāgata both exists and does not exist’ and ‘after death a Tathāgata neither

existsnordoesnotexist.’

TheBlessedOnedoesnotdeclarethesetome,andI

donotapproveofandacceptthisfact,soIshallgototheBlessedOneandask

himthemeaningofthis.Ifhedeclarestomeeither‘theworldiseternal’…or

‘after death aTathāgata neither exists nor doesnot exist,’then Iwill lead the

spirituallifeunderhim;ifhedoesnotdeclarethesetome,thenIwillabandon

thetrainingandreturntothelowerlife.”

3. Then, when it was evening, the Venerable Māluṅkyāputta rose from

meditation and went to the Blessed One. After paying homage to him, he sat

downatonesideandtoldhim:

“Here,venerablesir,whileIwasaloneinmeditation,thefollowingthought

arose in my mind: ‘These speculativeviews have been left undeclared by the

Blessed One.… If he does not declare these to me, then I will abandon the

training and return to the lower life.’ If the Blessed One knows ‘the world is

eternal,’lettheBlessedOnedeclaretome‘theworldiseternal’;iftheBlessed

One knows ‘the world is not eternal,’ let the Blessed One declare to me ‘the

world is not eternal.’ If the Blessed One does not know either ‘the world is

eternal’or‘theworldisnoteternal,’thenitisstraightforwardforonewhodoes

notknowandseetosay:‘Idonotknowandsee.’

“IftheBlessedOneknows‘theworldisfinite,’…‘theworldisinfinite,’...

‘thesoulisthesameasthebody,’...‘thesoulisonethingandthebodyanother,’

…‘afterdeathaTathāgataexists,’…’afterdeathaTathāgatadoesnotexist.’…

IftheBlessedOneknows‘afterdeathaTathāgatabothexistsanddoesnotexist,’

lettheBlessedOnedeclarethattome;iftheBlessedOneknows‘afterdeatha

Tathāgataneitherexistsnordoesnotexist,’lettheBlessedOnedeclarethatto

me.IftheBlessedOnedoesnotknoweither‘afterdeathaTathāgatabothexists

anddoesnotexist’or‘afterdeathaTathāgataneitherexistsnordoesnotexist,’

thenitisstraightforwardforonewhodoesnotknowandseetosay:‘Idonot

knowandsee.’”

4.“Howthen,Māluṅkyāputta,didIeversaytoyou:‘Come,Māluṅkyāputta,

leadthespirituallifeundermeandIwilldeclaretoyou“theworldiseternal”…

or“afterdeathaTathāgataneitherexistsnordoesnotexist”’?”—“No,venerable

sir.”—“Didyouevertellme:‘IwillleadthespirituallifeundertheBlessedOne,

andtheBlessedOnewilldeclaretome“theworldiseternal”…or“afterdeatha

Tathāgata neither exists nor does not exist”’?”—“No, venerable sir.”—“That

beingso,misguidedman,whoareyouandwhatareyouabandoning?

5. “If anyone should say thus: ‘I will not lead the spiritual life under the

BlessedOneuntiltheBlessedOnedeclarestome“theworldiseternal”…or

“after death a Tathāgata neither exists nor does not exist,”’ that would still

remain undeclared by the Tathāgata and meanwhile that person would die.

Suppose, Māluṅkyāputta, a man were wounded by an arrow thickly smeared

withpoison,andhisfriendsandcompanions,hiskinsmenandrelatives,brought

asurgeontotreathim.Themanwouldsay:‘Iwillnotletthesurgeonpullout

this arrow until I know whether the man who wounded me was a khattiya, a

brahmin,amerchant,oraworker.’Andhewouldsay:‘Iwillnotletthesurgeon

pulloutthisarrowuntilIknowthenameandclanofthemanwhowoundedme;

…untilIknowwhetherthemanwhowoundedmewastall,short,orofmiddle

height;…untilIknowwhetherthemanwhowoundedmewasdark,brown,or

golden-skinned;…untilIknowwhetherthemanwhowoundedmelivesinsuch

avillage,town,orcity;…untilIknowwhetherthebowthatwoundedmewasa

longboworacrossbow;…untilIknowwhetherthebowstringthatwoundedme

was fiber, reed, sinew, hemp, or bark;… until I know whether the shaft that

woundedmewaswildorcultivated;…untilIknowwithwhatkindoffeathers

the shaft that wounded me was fitted—whether those of a vulture, a heron, a

hawk,apeacock,orastork;…untilIknowwithwhatkindofsinewtheshaft

that wounded me was bound—whether that of an ox, a buffalo, a deer, or a

monkey; … until I know what kind of arrowhead it was that wounded me—

whether spiked or razor-tipped or curved or barbed or calf-toothed or lancet-

shaped.’

“Allthiswouldstillnotbeknowntothatman,andmeanwhilehewoulddie.

Sotoo,Māluṅkyāputta,ifanyoneshouldsaythus:‘Iwillnotleadthespiritual

lifeundertheBlessedOneuntiltheBlessedOnedeclarestome:“theworldis

eternal”…or “afterdeath aTathāgata neitherexists nordoes not exist,”’ that

wouldstillremainundeclaredbytheTathāgataandmeanwhilethatpersonwould

die.

6.“Māluṅkyāputta,ifthereistheview‘theworldiseternal,’thespirituallife

cannotbelived;andifthereistheview‘theworldisnoteternal,’thespiritual

lifecannotbelived.Whetherthereistheview‘theworldiseternal’ortheview

‘theworldisnoteternal,’thereisbirth,thereisaging,thereisdeath,thereare

sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair, the destruction of which I

prescribehereandnow.

“Ifthereistheview‘theworldisfinite’...‘theworldisinfinite’‘thesoulis

thesameasthebody’...‘thesoulisonethingandthebodyanother’…‘after

deathaTathāgataexists’…‘afterdeathaTathāgatadoesnotexist,’thespiritual

lifecannotbelived.…Ifthereistheview‘afterdeathaTathāgatabothexists

and does not exist,’ the spiritual life cannot be lived; and if there is the view

‘afterdeathaTathāgataneitherexistsnordoesnotexist,’thespirituallifecannot

belived.Whetherthereistheview‘afterdeathaTathāgatabothexistsanddoes

notexist’ortheview‘afterdeathaTathāgataneitherexistsnordoesnotexist,’

thereisbirth,thereisaging,thereisdeath,therearesorrow,lamentation,pain,

dejection,anddespair,thedestructionofwhichIprescribehereandnow.

7. “Therefore, Māluṅkyāputta, remember what I have left undeclared as

undeclared,andrememberwhatIhavedeclaredasdeclared.AndwhathaveI

leftundeclared?‘Theworldiseternal’—Ihaveleftundeclared.‘Theworldisnot

eternal’—Ihaveleftundeclared.‘Theworldisfinite’—Ihaveleftundeclared.

‘The world is infinite’—I have left undeclared. ‘The soul is the same as the

body’—Ihaveleftundeclared.‘Thesoulisonethingandthebodyanother’—I

have left undeclared. ‘After death aTathāgata exists’—I have left undeclared.

‘AfterdeathaTathāgatadoesnotexist’—Ihaveleftundeclared.‘Afterdeatha

Tathāgatabothexistsanddoesnotexist’—Ihaveleftundeclared.‘Afterdeatha

Tathāgataneitherexistsnordoesnotexist’—Ihaveleftundeclared.

8. “Why have I left that undeclared? Because it is unbeneficial, it does not

belong to the fundamentals of the spiritual life, it does not lead to

disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to direct knowledge, to

enlightenment,toNibbāna.ThatiswhyIhaveleftitundeclared.

9.“AndwhathaveIdeclared?‘Thisissuffering’—Ihavedeclared.‘Thisis

theoriginofsuffering’—Ihavedeclared.‘Thisisthecessationofsuffering’—I

have declared. ‘This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering’—Ihave

declared.

10. “Why have I declared that? Because it is beneficial, it belongs to the

fundamentals of the spiritual life, it leads todisenchantment, to dispassion,to

cessation,topeace,todirectknowledge,toenlightenment,toNibbāna.Thatis

whyIhavedeclaredit.

“Therefore, Māluṅkyāputta, remember what I have left undeclared as

undeclared,andrememberwhatIhavedeclaredasdeclared.”

ThatiswhattheBlessedOnesaid.TheVenerableMāluṅkyāputtawassatisfied

anddelightedintheBlessedOne’swords.

(MN63:CūḷamāluṅkyaSutta;I426–32)

(2)TheHeartwoodoftheSpiritualLife

1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatRājagaha

onMountVulturePeak;itwassoonafterDevadattahadleft.

There,referringto

Devadatta,theBlessedOneaddressedthemonksthus:

2.“Monks,heresomeclansmangoesforthoutoffaithfromthehouseholdlife

into homelessness, considering: ‘I am a victim of birth, aging, and death, of

sorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair;Iamavictimofsuffering,a

prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this whole mass of suffering can be

known.’Whenhehasgoneforththus,heacquiresgain,honor,andrenown.He

ispleasedwiththatgain,honor, andrenown,andhisintentionisfulfilled.On

account of it he lauds himself and disparages others thus: ‘I obtain gain and

renown, but these other monks are unknown, of no account.’ He becomes

intoxicated with that gain, honor, and renown, grows negligent, falls into

negligence,andbeingnegligent,helivesinsuffering.

“Supposeamanneedingheartwood,seekingheartwood,wanderinginsearch

of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of heartwood. Passing

overitsheartwood,itssapwood,itsinnerbark,anditsouterbark,hewouldcut

offitstwigsandleavesandtakethemawaythinkingtheywereheartwood.Then

amanwithgoodsight,seeinghim,mightsay:‘Thisgoodmandidnotknowthe

heartwood,thesapwood,theinnerbark,theouterbark,orthetwigsandleaves.

Thus, while needing heartwood, seeking heartwood, wandering in search of

heartwood,hecametoagreattreestandingpossessedofheartwood,andpassing

overitsheartwood,itssapwood,itsinnerbark,anditsouterbark,hecutoffits

twigsandleavesandtookthemawaythinkingtheywereheartwood.Whateverit

wasthisgoodmanhadtomakewithheartwood,hispurposewillnotbeserved.’

Sotooisitwiththismonkwhobecomesintoxicatedwiththatgain,honor,and

renown. This monk is called one who has taken the twigs and leaves of the

spirituallifeandstoppedshortwiththat.

3.“Here,monks,someclansmangoesforthoutoffaithfromthehousehold

lifeintohomelessness,considering:‘Iamavictimofbirth,aging,anddeath,of

sorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair;Iamavictimofsuffering,a

prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this whole mass of suffering can be

known.’Whenhehasgoneforththus,heacquiresgain,honor,andrenown.He

isnotpleasedwiththatgain,honor,andrenown,andhisintentionisnotfulfilled.

Hedoesnot, onaccountof it,laudhimselfand disparageothers.He doesnot

become intoxicated with that gain, honor, and renown; he does not grow

negligentandfallintonegligence.Beingdiligent,heachievestheattainmentof

moraldiscipline.Heispleasedwiththatattainmentofmoraldisciplineandhis

intention is fulfilled. On account of it he lauds himself and disparages others

thus:‘Ihavemoraldiscipline;Iamofgoodcharacter;buttheseothermonksare

immoral, of bad character.’ He becomes intoxicated with that attainment of

moraldiscipline,growsnegligent,fallsintonegligence,andbeingnegligent,he

livesinsuffering.

“Supposeamanneedingheartwood,seekingheartwood,wanderinginsearch

of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of heartwood. Passing

overitsheartwood, its sapwood,andits innerbark,he wouldcutoffitsouter

barkandtakeitawaythinkingitwasheartwood.Thenamanwithgoodsight,

seeinghim,mightsay:‘Thisgoodmandidnotknowtheheartwood…orthe

twigsandleaves.Thus,whileneedingheartwood…hecutoffitsouterbarkand

tookitawaythinkingitwasheartwood.Whateveritwasthisgoodmanhadto

makewithheartwood,hispurposewillnotbeserved.’Sotooisitwiththismonk

whobecomesintoxicatedwiththatattainmentofmoraldiscipline.Thismonkis

calledonewhohastakentheouterbarkofthespirituallifeandstoppedshort

withthat.

4.“Here,monks,someclansmangoesforthoutoffaithfromthehousehold

lifeintohomelessness,considering:‘Iamavictimofbirth,aging,anddeath,of

sorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair;Iamavictimofsuffering,a

prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this whole mass of suffering can be

known.’Whenhehasgoneforththus,heacquiresgain,honor,andrenown.He

isnotpleasedwiththatgain,honor,andrenown,andhisintentionisnotfulfilled.

…Beingdiligent,heachievestheattainmentofmoraldiscipline.Heispleased

withthatattainmentofmoraldiscipline,buthisintentionisnotfulfilled.Hedoes

not, on account of it, laud himself and disparage others. He does not become

intoxicatedwiththatattainmentofmoraldiscipline;hedoesnotgrownegligent

and fall into negligence. Being diligent, he achieves the attainment of

concentration. He is pleased with that attainment of concentration and his

intention is fulfilled. On account of it he lauds himself and disparages others

thus:‘Iamconcentrated;mymindisunified;buttheseothermonksarescatter-

minded,withtheirmindsastray.’Hebecomesintoxicatedwiththatattainmentof

concentration, grows negligent, falls into negligence, and being negligent, he

livesinsuffering.

“Supposeamanneedingheartwood,seekingheartwood,wanderinginsearch

of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of heartwood. Passing

overitsheartwoodanditssapwood,hewouldcutoffitsinnerbarkandtakeit

awaythinkingitwasheartwood.Thenamanwithgoodsight,seeinghim,might

say: ‘This good man did not know the heartwood … or the twigs and leaves.

Thus, while needing heartwood … he cut off its inner bark and took it away

thinking it was heartwood. Whatever it was this good man had to make with

heartwood, his purpose will not be served.’ So too is it with this monk who

becomesintoxicatedwiththatattainmentofconcentration.Thismonkiscalled

onewhohastakentheinnerbarkofthespirituallifeandstoppedshortwiththat.

5.“Here,monks,someclansmangoesforthoutoffaithfromthehousehold

lifeintohomelessness,considering:‘Iamavictimofbirth,aging,anddeath,of

sorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair;Iamavictimofsuffering,a

prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this whole mass of suffering can be

known.’Whenhehasgoneforththus,heacquiresgain,honor,andrenown.He

isnotpleasedwiththatgain,honor,andrenown,andhisintentionisnotfulfilled.

…Beingdiligent,heachievestheattainmentofmoraldiscipline.Heispleased

with that attainment of moral discipline, but his intention is not fulfilled.…

Beingdiligent,heachievestheattainmentofconcentration.Heispleasedwith

thatattainmentofconcentration,buthisintentionisnotfulfilled.Hedoesnot,on

accountofit,laudhimselfanddisparageothers.Hedoesnotbecomeintoxicated

withthatattainmentofconcentration;hedoesnotgrownegligentandfallinto

negligence. Being diligent, he achieves knowledge and vision.

 He is pleased

withthatknowledgeandvisionandhisintentionisfulfilled.Onaccountofithe

laudshimselfanddisparagesothersthus:‘Iliveknowingandseeing,butthese

othermonks live unknowing and unseeing.’ He becomes intoxicated with that

knowledge and vision, grows negligent, falls into negligence, and being

negligent,helivesinsuffering.

“Supposeamanneedingheartwood,seekingheartwood,wanderinginsearch

of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of heartwood. Passing

overitsheartwood,hewouldcutoffitssapwoodandtakeitawaythinkingitwas

heartwood.Thenamanwithgoodsight,seeinghim,mightsay:‘Thisgoodman

did not know the heartwood ... or the twigs and leaves. Thus, while needing

heartwood…hecutoffitssapwoodandtookitawaythinkingitwasheartwood.

Whateveritwasthisgoodmanhadtomakewithheartwood,hispurposewillnot

be served.’ So too is it with this monk who becomes intoxicated with that

knowledgeandvision.Thismonkiscalledonewhohastakenthesapwoodof

thespirituallifeandstoppedshortwiththat.

6.“Here,monks,someclansmangoesforthoutoffaithfromthehousehold

lifeintohomelessness,considering:‘Iamavictimofbirth,aging,anddeath,of

sorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair;Iamavictimofsuffering,a

prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this whole mass of suffering can be

known.’Whenhehasgoneforththus,heacquiresgain,honor,andrenown.He

isnotpleasedwiththatgain,honor,andrenown,andhisintentionisnotfulfilled.

… When he is diligent, he achieves the attainment of moral discipline. He is

pleasedwiththatattainmentofmoraldiscipline,buthisintentionisnotfulfilled.

… When he is diligent, he achieves the attainment of concentration. He is

pleasedwiththatattainmentofconcentration,buthisintentionisnotfulfilled.…

Whenheisdiligent,heachievesknowledgeandvision.Heispleasedwiththat

knowledgeandvision,buthisintentionisnotfulfilled.Hedoesnot,onaccount

ofit, laudhimself anddisparage others.He doesnot becomeintoxicated with

thatknowledgeandvision;hedoesnotgrownegligentandfallintonegligence.

Beingdiligent,heattainsperpetualemancipation.Anditisimpossibleforthat

monktofallawayfromthatperpetualliberation.

“Supposeamanneedingheartwood,seekingheartwood,wanderinginsearch

ofheartwood,cametoagreattreestandingpossessedofheartwood,andcutting

offonlyitsheartwood,hewouldtakeitawayknowingitwasheartwood.Thena

man with good sight, seeing him, might say: ‘This good man knew the

heartwood,thesapwood,theinnerbark,theouterbark,andthetwigsandleaves.

Thus, while needing heartwood, seeking heartwood, wandering in search of

heartwood,hecametoagreattreestandingpossessedofheartwood,andcutting

offonlyitsheartwood,hetookitawayknowingitwasheartwood.Whateverit

wasthisgoodmanhadtomakewithheartwood,hispurposewillbeserved.’So

tooisitwiththismonkwhoattainsperpetualliberation.

7.“Sothisspirituallife,monks,doesnothavegain,honor,andrenownforits

benefit,ortheattainmentofmoraldisciplineforitsbenefit,ortheattainmentof

concentrationforitsbenefit,orknowledgeandvisionforitsbenefit.Butitisthis

unshakableliberationofmindthatisthegoalofthisspirituallife,itsheartwood,

anditsend.”

ThatiswhattheBlessedOnesaid.Themonksweresatisfiedanddelightedin

theBlessedOne’swords.

(MN29:MahāsāropamaSutta;I192–97)

(3)TheFadingAwayofLust

“Monks,ifwanderersofothersectsaskyou:‘Forwhatpurpose,friends,isthe

spiritual life lived under the ascetic Gotama?’—being asked thus, you should

answerthemthus:‘Itis,friends,forthefadingawayoflust

thatthespirituallife

islivedundertheBlessedOne.’

“Then,monks,ifthewanderersofothersectsaskyou:‘But,friends,istherea

path,awayforthefadingawayoflust?’—beingaskedthus,youshouldanswer

themthus:‘Thereisapath,friends,awayforthefadingawayoflust.’

“Andwhat,monks,isthatpath,thatwayforthefadingawayoflust?Itisthis

Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right

action,rightlivelihood,righteffort,rightmindfulness,rightconcentration.This

isthepath,thewayforthefadingawayoflust.

“Beingaskedthus,monks,youshouldanswerthosewanderersofothersects

insuchaway.

“[Or else you may answer them:] ‘It is, friends, for the abandoning of the

fetters … for the uprooting of the underlying tendencies … for the full

understandingofthecourse[ofsaṃsāra]…forthedestructionofthetaints…

fortherealizationofthefruitoftrueknowledgeandliberation…forthesakeof

knowledgeandvision…forthesakeoffinalNibbānawithoutclingingthatthe

spirituallifeislivedundertheBlessedOne.’

“Then,monks,ifthewanderersofothersectsaskyou:‘But,friends,istherea

path, a way for attaining final Nibbāna without clinging?’—being asked thus,

youshouldanswerthemthus:‘Thereisapath,friends,awayforattainingfinal

Nibbānawithoutclinging.’

“Andwhat,monks,isthatpath,thatwayforattainingfinalNibbānawithout

clinging? It is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view … right

concentration. This is the path, the way for attaining final Nibbāna without

clinging.

“Beingaskedthus,monks,youshouldanswerthosewanderersofothersects

insuchaway.”

(SN45:41–48,combined;V27–29)

2.ANALYSISOFTHEEIGHTFOLDPATH

“Monks,IwillteachyoutheNobleEightfoldPath,andIwillanalyzeitforyou.

Listenandattendclosely;Iwillspeak.”

“Yes,venerablesir,”thosemonksreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:

“Andwhat,monks,istheNobleEightfoldPath?Rightview,rightintention,

right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and

rightconcentration.

“Andwhat,monks,isrightview?Knowledgeofsuffering,knowledgeofthe

originof suffering,knowledgeof the cessationof suffering,knowledgeof the

wayleadingtothecessationofsuffering:thisiscalledrightview.

“Andwhat,monks,isrightintention?Intentionofrenunciation,intentionof

non–illwill,intentionofharmlessness:thisiscalledrightintention.

“Andwhat,monks,isrightspeech?Abstinencefromfalsespeech,abstinence

from malicious speech, abstinence from harsh speech, abstinence from idle

chatter:thisiscalledrightspeech.

“And what, monks, is right action? Abstinence from the destruction of life,

abstinencefrom taking what is not given,abstinence from sexual misconduct:

thisiscalledrightaction.

“And what, monks, is right livelihood? Here a noble disciple, having

abandonedawrong modeoflivelihood,earns hislivingby arightlivelihood:

thisiscalledrightlivelihood.

“Andwhat,monks,isrighteffort?Here,monks,amonkgeneratesdesirefor

thenonarisingofunarisenevilunwholesomestates;hemakesaneffort,arouses

energy,applieshismind,andstrives.Hegeneratesdesirefortheabandoningof

arisenevilunwholesomestates….Hegeneratesdesireforthearisingofunarisen

wholesome states…. He generates desire for the continuation of arisen

wholesomestates,fortheirnondecline,increase,expansion,andfulfillmentby

development;hemakesaneffort,arousesenergy,applieshismind,andstrives.

Thisiscalledrighteffort.

“And what, monks is right mindfulness? Here, monks, a monk dwells

contemplating the body in the body, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful,

having removed longing and dejection in regard to the world. He dwells

contemplating feelings in feelings, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful,

having removed longing and dejection in regard to the world. He dwells

contemplating mind in mind, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having

removedlonginganddejectioninregardtotheworld.Hedwellscontemplating

phenomena in phenomena, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having

removed longing and dejection in regard to the world. This is called right

mindfulness.

“And what, monks, is right concentration? Here, monks, secluded from

sensualpleasures,secludedfromunwholesomestates,amonkentersanddwells

in the first jhāna, which is accompanied by thought and examination, with

rapture and happiness born of seclusion. With the subsiding of thought and

examination, he enters and dwells in the second jhāna, which has internal

confidenceandunificationofmind,iswithoutthoughtandexamination,andhas

rapture and happiness born of concentration. With the fading away as well of

rapture, he dwells equanimous and, mindful and clearly comprehending, he

experienceshappinesswiththebody;heentersanddwellsinthethirdjhānaof

which the noble ones declare: ‘He is equanimous, mindful, one who dwells

happily.’ With the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the previous

passing away of joy and dejection, he enters and dwells in the fourth jhāna,

whichisneitherpainfulnorpleasantandincludesthepurificationofmindfulness

byequanimity.Thisiscalledrightconcentration.”

(SN45:8;V8–10)

3.GOODFRIENDSHIP

ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingamongthe

Sakyans where there was a town of the Sakyans named Nāgaraka. Then the

VenerableĀnandaapproachedtheBlessedOne,paidhomagetohim,satdown

tooneside,andsaid:

“Venerablesir,thisishalfofthespirituallife,thatis,goodfriendship,good

companionship,goodcomradeship.”

“Notso,Ānanda!Notso,Ānanda!Thisistheentirespirituallife,Ānanda,that

is,goodfriendship,goodcompanionship,goodcomradeship.Whenamonkhas

agoodfriend,agoodcompanion,agoodcomrade,itistobeexpectedthathe

willdevelopandcultivatetheNobleEightfoldPath.

“And how, Ānanda,does a monk with a goodfriend, a good companion, a

goodcomrade,developandcultivatetheNobleEightfoldPath?Here,Ānanda,a

monk develops right view, which is based upon seclusion, dispassion, and

cessation, maturing in release. He develops right intention … right speech …

right action … right livelihood … right effort ... right mindfulness … right

concentration, which is based upon seclusion, dispassion, and cessation,

maturinginrelease.Itisinthisway,Ānanda,thatamonkwithagoodfriend,a

goodcompanion,agoodcomrade,developsandcultivatestheNobleEightfold

Path.

“Bythefollowingmethodtoo,Ānanda,itmaybeunderstoodhowtheentire

spiritual life is good friendship, good companionship, good comradeship: by

relyinguponmeasagoodfriend,Ānanda,beingssubjecttobirtharefreedfrom

birth;beingssubjecttoagingarefreedfromaging;beingssubjecttodeathare

freed from death; beings subject to sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and

despairarefreedfromsorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair.Bythis

method, Ānanda, it may be understood how the entire spiritual life is good

friendship,goodcompanionship,goodcomradeship.”

(SN45:2;V2–3)

4.THEGRADUATEDTRAINING

1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatSāvatthīin

Jeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’sPark.

2.NowonthatoccasionthebrahminJāṇussoṇiwasdrivingoutofSāvatthīin

themiddleofthedayinanall-whitechariotdrawnbywhitemares.Hesawthe

wandererPilotikacominginthedistanceandaskedhim:“NowwhereisMaster

Vacchāyanacomingfrominthemiddleoftheday?”

“Sir,IamcomingfromthepresenceoftheasceticGotama.”

“What does Master Vacchāyana think of the ascetic Gotama’s lucidity of

wisdom?Heiswise,ishenot?”

“Sir,whoamItoknowtheasceticGotama’slucidityofwisdom?Onewould

surelyhavetobehisequaltoknowtheasceticGotama’slucidityofwisdom.”

“MasterVacchāyanapraisestheasceticGotamawithhighpraiseindeed.”“Sir,

whoam Ito praisethe asceticGotama? The asceticGotama ispraised bythe

praised as best among devas and humans.” “What reasons does Master

VacchāyanaseethathehassuchfirmconfidenceintheasceticGotama?”

3.“Sir,supposeawiseelephanthunterweretoenteranelephantwoodand

weretoseeintheelephantwoodabigelephant’sfootprint,longinextentand

broad across. He would come to the conclusion: ‘Indeed, this is a big bull

elephant.’Sotoo,whenIsawfourfootprintsoftheasceticGotama,Icametothe

conclusion: ‘The Blessed One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well

expoundedbytheBlessedOne,theSaṅghaispracticingthegoodway.’Whatare

thefour?

4. “Sir, I have seen here certain learned nobles who were clever,

knowledgeableaboutthedoctrinesofothers,assharpashairsplittingmarksmen;

theywanderabout,asitwere,demolishingtheviewsofotherswiththeirsharp

wits.Whentheyhear:‘TheasceticGotamawillvisitsuchandsuchavillageor

town,’theyformulateaquestionthus:‘WewillgototheasceticGotamaandask

himthisquestion.Ifheisaskedlikethis,hewillanswerlikethis,andsowewill

refutehisdoctrineinthisway;andifheisaskedlikethat,hewillanswerlike

that,and so we will refute his doctrine in thatway.’ “They hear: ‘The ascetic

Gotama has come to visit such and such a village or town.’ They go to the

ascetic Gotama, and the ascetic Gotama instructs, urges, rouses, and gladdens

themwithatalkontheDhamma.Aftertheyhavebeeninstructed,urged,roused,

andgladdenedbytheasceticGotamawithatalkontheDhamma,theydonotso

muchasaskhimthequestion,sohowshouldtheyrefutehisdoctrine?Inactual

fact, they become his disciples. When I saw this first footprint of the ascetic

Gotama,Icametotheconclusion:‘TheBlessedOneisperfectlyenlightened,the

Dhamma is well expounded by the Blessed One, the Saṅgha is practicing the

goodway.’

5.“Again,Ihaveseencertainlearnedbrahminswhowereclever.…Inactual

fact, they too become his disciples. When I saw this second footprint of the

ascetic Gotama, I came to the conclusion: ‘The Blessed One is perfectly

enlightened.…’

6. “Again, I have seen certain learned householders who were clever.… In

actualfact,theytoobecomehisdisciples.WhenIsawthisthirdfootprintofthe

ascetic Gotama, I came to the conclusion: ‘The Blessed One is perfectly

enlightened.…’

7.“Again,Ihaveseencertainlearnedasceticswhowereclever.…Theydo

notsomuchasaskhimthequestion,sohowshouldtheyrefutehisdoctrine?In

actual fact, they ask the ascetic Gotama to allow them to go forth from the

householdlifeintohomelessness,andhegivesthemthegoingforth.Notlong

after they have gone forth, dwelling alone, withdrawn, diligent, ardent, and

resolute,byrealizingitforthemselveswithdirectknowledgetheyhereandnow

enterupon and dwell inthat supreme goal ofthe spiritual life for the sake of

whichclansmenrightlygoforthfromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.They

saythus:‘Wewereverynearlylost,weverynearlyperished,forformerlywe

claimedthatwewereasceticsthoughwewerenotreallyascetics;weclaimed

thatwewerebrahminsthoughwewerenotreallybrahmins;weclaimedthatwe

werearahantsthoughwewerenotreallyarahants.Butnowweareascetics,now

wearebrahmins,nowwearearahants.’WhenIsawthisfourthfootprintofthe

ascetic Gotama, I came to the conclusion: ‘The Blessed One is perfectly

enlightened.…’

“When I saw these four footprints of the ascetic Gotama, I came to the

conclusion: ‘The Blessed One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well

expoundedbytheBlessedOne,theSaṅghaispracticingthegoodway.’”

8. When this was said, the brahmin Jāṇussoṇi got down from his all-white

chariotdrawnbywhitemares,andarranginghisupperrobeononeshoulder,he

extendedhishandsinreverentialsalutationtowardtheBlessedOneanduttered

this exclamation three times: “Homage to the Blessed One, the Arahant, the

Perfectly Enlightened One! Homage to the Blessed One, the Arahant, the

Perfectly Enlightened One! Perhaps some time or other I might meet Master

Gotamaandhavesomeconversationwithhim.”

9. Then the brahmin Jāṇussoṇi went to the Blessed One and exchanged

greetingswithhim.Whenthiscourteousandamiabletalkwasfinished,hesat

downtoonesideandrelatedhisentireconversationwiththewandererPilotika.

ThereupontheBlessedOnetoldhim:“Atthispoint,brahmin,thesimileofthe

elephant’s footprint has not yet been completed in detail. As to how it is

completedindetail,listenandattendcarefullytowhatIshallsay.”—“Yes,sir,”

thebrahminJāṇussoṇireplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:

10.“Brahmin,supposeanelephanthunterweretoenteranelephantwoodand

weretoseeintheelephantwoodabigelephant’sfootprint,longinextentand

broad across. A wise elephant hunter would not yet come to the conclusion:

‘Indeed,thisisabigbullelephant.’Whyisthat?Inanelephantwoodthereare

small she-elephants that leave a big footprint, and this might be one of their

footprints.Hefollowsitandseesintheelephantwoodabigelephant’sfootprint,

longinextentandbroadacross,andsomescrapingshighup.Awiseelephant

hunterwouldnotyetcometotheconclusion:‘Indeed,thisisabigbullelephant.

’ Why is that? In an elephant wood there are tall she-elephants that have

prominent teeth and leave a big footprint, and this might be one of their

footprints.Hefollowsitfurtherandseesintheelephantwoodabigelephant’s

footprint, long in extent and broad across, and some scrapings high up, and

marks made by tusks. A wise elephant hunter would not yet come to the

conclusion: ‘Indeed, this is a big bull elephant.’ Why is that? In an elephant

woodtherearetallshe-elephantsthathavetusksandleaveabigfootprint,and

this might be one of their footprints. He follows it further and sees in the

elephantwoodabigelephant’sfootprint,longinextentandbroadacross,and

somescrapingshighup,andmarksmadebytusks,andbroken-offbranches.And

he sees that bull elephant at the root of a tree or in the open, walking about,

sitting, or lying down. He comes to the conclusion: ‘This is that big bull

elephant.’

11. “So too, brahmin, here a Tathāgata appears in the world, an arahant,

perfectlyenlightened,perfectintrueknowledgeandconduct,fortunate,knower

oftheworld,unsurpassedleaderofpersonstobetamed,teacherofdevasand

humans,theEnlightened One,the BlessedOne. Having realizedwith hisown

directknowledgethisworldwithitsdevas,Māra,andBrahmā,thispopulation

withitsasceticsandbrahmins,withitsdevasandhumans,hemakesitknownto

others.HeteachesaDhammathatisgoodinthebeginning,goodinthemiddle,

andgoodintheend,withtherightmeaningandexpression;herevealsaholy

lifethatisperfectlycompleteandpurified.

12.“Ahouseholderorhouseholder’ssonoroneborninsomeotherclanhears

that Dhamma. On hearing the Dhamma he acquires faith in the Tathāgata.

Possessingthatfaith,heconsidersthus:‘Householdlifeiscrowdedanddusty;

lifegoneforthiswideopen.Itisnoteasy,whilelivinginahome,toleadthe

spirituallifeutterlyperfectandpureasapolishedshell.SupposeIshaveoffmy

hairandbeard,putontheochrerobe,andgoforthfromthehouseholdlifeinto

homelessness.’ On a later occasion, abandoning a small or a large fortune,

abandoningasmalloralargecircleofrelatives,heshavesoffhishairandbeard,

putsontheochrerobe,andgoesforthfromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.

13.“Havingthusgoneforthandpossessingthemonk’strainingandwayof

life,abandoningthedestructionoflife,heabstainsfromthedestructionoflife;

with rod and weapon laid aside, conscientious, merciful, he dwells

compassionatetoalllivingbeings.Abandoningthetakingofwhatisnotgiven,

heabstainsfromtakingwhatisnotgiven;takingonlywhatisgiven,expecting

only what is given, by not stealing he dwells in purity. Abandoning sexual

relations,heobservescelibacy,livingapart,refrainingfromthecoarsepractice

ofsexualintercourse.

“Abandoning false speech, he abstains from false speech; he speaks truth,

adherestotruth,istrustworthyandreliable,onewhoisnodeceiveroftheworld.