001
TableofContents
TitlePage
Acknowledgements
Foreword
PREFACE
LISTOFABBREVIATIONS
KEYTOTHEPRONUNCIATIONOFPĀLI
Introduction
I.TheHumanCondition
INTRODUCTION
I.THEHUMANCONDITION
II.TheBringerofLight
INTRODUCTION
II.THEBRINGEROFLIGHT
III.ApproachingtheDhamma
INTRODUCTION
III.APPROACHINGTHEDHAMMA
IV.TheHappinessVisibleinThisPresentLife
INTRODUCTION
IV.THEHAPPINESSVISIBLEINTHISPRESENTLIFE
V.TheWaytoaFortunateRebirth
INTRODUCTION
V.THEWAYTOAFORTUNATEREBIRTH
VI.DeepeningOne’sPerspectiveontheWorld
INTRODUCTION
VI.DEEPENINGONE’SPERSPECTIVEONTHEWORLD
VII.ThePathtoLiberation
INTRODUCTION
VII.THEPATHTOLIBERATION
VIII.MasteringtheMind
INTRODUCTION
VIII.MASTERINGTHEMIND
IX.ShiningtheLightofWisdom
INTRODUCTION
IX.SHININGTHELIGHTOFWISDOM
X.ThePlanesofRealization
INTRODUCTION
X.THEPLANESOFREALIZATION
NOTES
TABLEOFSOURCES
GLOSSARY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEXOFSUBJECTS
INDEXOFSIMILES
INDEXOFPĀLITERMSDISCUSSEDINTHENOTES
AbouttheAuthor
AboutWisdom
CopyrightPage
Tamed,heissupremeamongthosewhotame;
Atpeace,heisthesageamongthosewhobringpeace;
Freed,heisthechiefofthosewhosetfree;
Delivered,heisthebestofthosewhodeliver.
—AṅguttaraNikāya4:23
PUBLISHER’SACKNOWLEDGMENT
For their help in sponsoring the printingof thisbook, the publishergratefully
acknowledgesthegeneroushelpoftheHersheyFamilyFoundationandthekind
contributionmadeinlovingmemoryofGanChinHongbyhisfamily.
FOREWORD
Morethantwothousandfivehundredyearshavepassedsinceourkindteacher,
BuddhaŚākyamuni,taughtinIndia.Heofferedadvicetoallwhowishedtoheed
it,invitingthemtolisten,reflect,andcriticallyexaminewhathehadtosay.He
addresseddifferentindividualsandgroupsofpeopleoveraperiodofmorethan
fortyyears.
AftertheBuddha’spassing,arecordof what he said was maintained as an
oral tradition. Those who heard the teachings would periodically meet with
othersforcommunalrecitationsofwhattheyhadheardandmemorized.Indue
course,theserecitationsfrommemorywerewrittendown,layingthebasisforall
subsequent Buddhist literature. The Pāli Canon is one of the earliest of these
written records and the only complete early version that has survived intact.
WithinthePāliCanon,thetextsknownastheNikāyashavethespecialvalueof
beingasinglecohesivecollectionoftheBuddha’steachingsinhisownwords.
These teachings cover a wide range of topics; they deal not only with
renunciationandliberation,butalsowiththeproperrelationsbetweenhusbands
andwives,themanagementofthehousehold,andthewaycountriesshouldbe
governed.Theyexplainthepathofspiritualdevelopment—fromgenerosityand
ethics,throughmindtrainingandtherealizationofwisdom,allthewayuptothe
attainmentofliberation.
The teachings from the Nikāyas collected here provide fascinating insights
intohowtheBuddha’steachingswerestudied,preserved,andunderstoodinthe
early days of Buddhism’s development. Modern readers will find them
especiallyvaluableforreinvigoratingandclarifyingtheirunderstandingofmany
fundamental Buddhist doctrines. Clearly the Buddha’s essential message of
compassion, ethical responsibility, mental tranquillity, and discernment is as
relevanttodayasitwasmorethantwenty-fivehundredyearsago.
AlthoughBuddhismspreadandtookrootinmanypartsofAsia,evolvinginto
diversetraditionsaccordingtotheplaceandoccasion,distanceanddifferences
oflanguagelimitedexchangebetweenBuddhistsinthepast.Oneoftheresults
ofmodernimprovementsintransportandcommunicationthatImostappreciate
isthevastlyexpandedopportunitiesthoseinterestedinBuddhismnowhaveto
acquaintthemselveswiththefullrangeofBuddhistteachingandpractice.What
I find especially encouraging about this book is that it shows so clearly how
muchfundamentally all schools of Buddhism have in common. I congratulate
BhikkhuBodhiforthiscarefulworkofcompilationandtranslation.Ioffermy
prayers that readers may find advice here—and the inspiration to put it into
practice—that will enable them to develop inner peace, which I believe is
essentialforthecreationofahappierandmorepeacefulworld.
VenerableTenzinGyatso,theFourteenthDalaiLamaMay10,2005
PREFACE
TheBuddha’sdiscoursespreservedinthePāliCanonarecalledsuttas,thePāli
equivalent of the Sanskrit word sūtras.Although the Pāli Canon belongs to a
particularBuddhistschool—theTheravāda,orSchooloftheElders—thesuttas
are by no means exclusively Theravāda Buddhist texts. They stem from the
earliestperiod of Buddhist literary history,a period lasting roughly a hundred
yearsaftertheBuddha’sdeath,beforetheoriginalBuddhistcommunitydivided
into different schools. The Pāli suttas have counterparts from other early
Buddhist schools now extinct, texts sometimes strikingly similar to the Pāli
version, differing mainly in settings and arrangements but not in points of
doctrine. The suttas, along with their counterparts, thus constitute the most
ancientrecordsoftheBuddha’steachingsavailabletous;theyaretheclosestwe
can come to what the historical Buddha Gotama himself actually taught. The
teachingsfoundinthemhaveservedasthefountainhead,theprimalsource,for
alltheevolvingstreamsofBuddhistdoctrineandpracticethroughthecenturies.
For this reason, they constitute the common heritage of the entire Buddhist
tradition, and Buddhists of all schools who wish to understand the taproot of
Buddhismshouldmakeacloseandcarefulstudyofthemapriority.
InthePāliCanontheBuddha’sdiscoursesarepreservedincollectionscalled
Nikāyas.Overthepasttwentyyears,freshtranslationsofthefourmajorNikāyas
have appeared in print, issued in attractive and affordable editions. Wisdom
Publications pioneered this development in 1987 when it published Maurice
Walshe’stranslationoftheDīghaNikāya,TheLongDiscoursesoftheBuddha.
Wisdomfollowedthisprecedentbybringingout,in1995,myrevisedandedited
versionofBhikkhuÑāṇamoli’shandwrittentranslationoftheMajjhimaNikāya,
The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, followed in 2000 by my new
translationofthecompleteSaṃyuttaNikāya,TheConnectedDiscoursesofthe
Buddha. In 1999, under the imprint of The Sacred Literature Trust Series,
AltaMira Press published an anthology of suttas from the Aṅguttara Nikāya,
translated by the late Nyanaponika Thera and myself, titled Numerical
DiscoursesoftheBuddha.Iamcurrentlyworkingonanewtranslationofthe
entireAṅguttara Nikāya, intended for Wisdom Publication’s Teachings of the
Buddhaseries.
Manywhohavereadtheselargerworkshavetoldme,tomysatisfaction,that
the translations brought the suttas to life for them. Yet others who earnestly
soughttoenterthedeepoceanoftheNikāyastoldmesomethingelse.Theysaid
thatwhilethelanguageofthetranslationsmadethemfarmoreaccessiblethan
earliertranslations,theywerestillgrapplingforastandpointfromwhichtosee
thesuttas’overallstructure,aframeworkwithinwhichtheyallfittogether.The
Nikāyasthemselvesdonotoffermuchhelpinthisrespect,fortheirarrangement
—with the notable exception of the Saṃyutta Nikāya, which does have a
thematicstructure—appearsalmosthaphazard.
InanongoingseriesoflecturesIbegangivingatBodhiMonasteryinNew
JerseyinJanuary2003,Idevisedaschemeofmyowntoorganizethecontents
of the Majjhima Nikāya. This scheme unfolds the Buddha’s message
progressively, from the simple to the difficult, from the elementary to the
profound.Uponreflection,Isawthatthisschemecouldbeappliednotonlyto
the Majjhima Nikāya, but to the four Nikāyas as a whole. The present book
organizes suttas selected from all four Nikāyas within this thematic and
progressiveframework.
This book is intended for two types of readers. The first are those not yet
acquainted with the Buddha’s discourses who feel the need for a systematic
introduction.Forsuchreaders,anyoftheNikāyasisboundtoappearopaque.All
four of them, viewed at once, may seem like a jungle—entangling and
bewildering,fullofunknownbeasts—orlikethegreatocean—vast,tumultuous,
andforbidding.Ihopethatthisbookwillserveasamaptohelpthemwendtheir
waythroughthejungleofthesuttasorasasturdyshiptocarrythemacrossthe
oceanoftheDhamma.
Thesecond type of readers forwhom this bookis meant are those, already
acquainted with the suttas, who still cannot see how they fit together into an
intelligiblewhole.Forsuchreaders,individualsuttasmaybecomprehensiblein
themselves,butthetextsintheirtotalityappearlikepiecesofajigsawpuzzle
scattered across a table. Once one understands the scheme in this book, one
shouldcome away with a clearidea of thearchitecture ofthe teaching. Then,
with a little reflection, one should be able to determine the place any sutta
occupiesintheedificeoftheDhamma,whetherornotithasbeenincludedin
thisanthology.
This anthology, or any other anthology of suttas, is no substitute for the
Nikāyas themselves. My hope is twofold, corresponding to the two types of
readersforwhomthisvolumeisdesigned:(1)thatnewcomerstoEarlyBuddhist
literaturefindthisvolumewhetstheirappetiteformoreandencouragesthemto
take the plunge into the full Nikāyas; and (2) that experienced readers of the
Nikāyasfinishthebookwithabetterunderstandingofmaterialwithwhichthey
arealreadyfamiliar.
Ifthisanthologyismeanttomakeanyotherpoint,itistoconveythesheer
breadthandrangeoftheBuddha’swisdom.WhileEarlyBuddhismissometimes
depictedasadisciplineofworldrenunciationintendedprimarilyforasceticsand
contemplatives,theancientdiscoursesofthePāliCanonclearlyshowushowthe
Buddha’swisdomandcompassionreachedintotheverydepthsofmundanelife,
providing ordinary people with guidelines for proper conduct and right
understanding.Far from being a creed for a monastic élite, ancient Buddhism
involvedtheclosecollaborationofhouseholdersandmonasticsinthetwintasks
ofmaintainingtheBuddha’steachingsandassistingoneanotherintheirefforts
towalkthepathtotheextinctionofsuffering.Tofulfillthesetasksmeaningfully,
the Dhamma had to provide them with deep and inexhaustible guidance,
inspiration, joy, and consolation. It could never have done this if it had not
directlyaddressedtheirearnesteffortstocombinesocialandfamilyobligations
withanaspirationtorealizethehighest.
Almost all the passages included in this book have been selected from the
above-mentionedpublications of thefour Nikāyas.Almost all have undergone
revisions,usuallyslightbutsometimesmajor,toaccordwithmyownevolving
understandingofthetextsandthePālilanguage.Ihavenewlytranslatedasmall
number of suttas from the Aṅguttara Nikāya not included in the above-
mentionedanthology.IhavealsoincludedahandfulofsuttasfromtheUdāna
and Itivuttaka, two small books belonging to the fifth Nikāya, the Khuddaka
Nikāya,theMinororMiscellaneousCollection.IhavebasedtheseonJohnD.
Ireland’stranslation,publishedbytheBuddhistPublicationSocietyinSriLanka,
but again I have freely modified them to fit my own preferred diction and
terminology. Ihave givenpreferenceto suttasin proseover those inverse, as
being more direct and explicit. When a sutta concludes with verses, if these
merelyrestatetheprecedingprose,intheinterestofspaceIhaveomittedthem.
Each chapter begins with an introduction in which I explain the salient
conceptsrelevant tothe themeof the chapter and tryto show how the textsI
have chosen exemplify that theme. To clarify points arising from both the
introductionsandthe texts,I haveincluded end-notes. Theseoften drawupon
the classical commentaries to the Nikāyas ascribed to the great South Indian
commentator Ācariya Buddhaghosa, who worked in Sri Lanka in the fifth
centuryC.E.Forthesakeofconcision,Ihavenotincludedasmanynotesinthis
bookasIhaveinmyothertranslationsoftheNikāyas.Thesenotesarealsonot
astechnicalasthoseinthefulltranslations.
Referencestothesourcesfolloweachselection.Referencestotextsfromthe
DīghaNikāyaandMajjhimaNikāyacitethenumberandnameofthesutta(in
Pāli);passagesfromthesetwocollectionsretaintheparagraphnumbersusedin
TheLongDiscoursesoftheBuddhaandThe Middle Length Discourses of the
Buddha,soreaderswhowishtolocatethesepassageswithinthefulltranslations
can easily do so. References to texts from the Saṃyutta Nikāya citesaṃyutta
andsuttanumber;textsfromtheAṅguttaraNikāyacitenipātaandsuttanumber
(theOnesandtheTwosalsocitechapterswithinthenipātafollowedbythesutta
number).ReferencestotextsfromtheUdānacitenipātaandsuttanumber;texts
fromtheItivuttakacitesimplythesuttanumber.Allreferencesarefollowedby
thevolumeandpagenumberinthePaliTextSociety’sstandardeditionofthese
works.
I am grateful to Timothy McNeill and David Kittelstrom of Wisdom
Publicationsforurgingmetopersistwiththisprojectinthefaceoflongperiods
of indifferent health. SāmaṇeraAnālayo and Bhikkhu Nyanasobhano read and
commentedonmyintroductions,andJohnKellyreviewedproofsoftheentire
book.Allthreemadeusefulsuggestions,forwhichIamgrateful.JohnKellyalso
preparedthetableofsourcesthatappearsatthebackofthebook.Finally,Iam
gratefultomystudentsofPāliandDhammastudiesatBodhiMonasteryfortheir
enthusiastic interest in the teachings of the Nikāyas, which inspired me to
compilethisanthology.Iamespeciallythankfultothemonastery’sextraordinary
founder, Ven. Master Jen-Chun, for welcoming a monk of another Buddhist
tradition to his monastery and for his interest in bridging the Northern and
SoutherntransmissionsoftheEarlyBuddhistteachings.
BhikkhuBodhi
LISTOFABBREVIATIONS
AN AṅguttaraNikāya
Be Burmese-scriptChaṭṭhaSaṅgāyanaed.
Ce Sinhala-scripted.
DN DīghaNikāya
Ee Roman-scripted.(PTS)
It Itivuttaka
MN MajjhimaNikāya
Mp Manorathapūraṇī(AṅguttaraNikāyaCommentary)
Ppn PathofPurification(Visuddhimaggatranslation)
Ps Papañcasūdanī(MajjhimaNikāyaCommentary)
Ps-pṭ Papañcasūdanī-purāṇa-ṭīkā(MajjhimaNikāyaSubcommentary)
Skt Sanskrit
SN SaṃyuttaNikāya
Spk Sāratthappakāsinī(SaṃyuttaNikāyaCommentary)
Spk-pṭ Sāratthappakāsinī-purāṇa-ṭīkā(SaṃyuttaNikāyaSubcommentary)
Sv Sumaṅgalavilāsinī(DīghaNikāyaCommentary)
Ud Udāna
Vibh Vibhaṅga
Vin Vinaya
Vism Visuddhimagga
All page references to Pāli texts are to the page numbers of the Pali Text
Society’seditions.
KEYTOTHEPRONUNCIATIONOFPĀLI
ThePāliAlphabet
Vowels:a,ā,i,ī,u,ū,e,o
Consonants:
Gutterals k,kh,g,gh,ṅ
Palatals c,ch,j,jh,ñ
Cerebrals ṭ,ṭh,ḍ,ḍh,ṇ
Dentals t,th,d,dh,n
Labials p,ph,b,bh,m
Other y,r,ḷ,l,v,s,h,ṃ
Pronunciation
aasin“cut” uasin“put”
āasin“father” ūasin“rule”
iasin“king” easin“way”
īasin“keen” oasin“home”
Ofthe vowels, eand o are long before a single consonant and short before a
doubleconsonant.Amongtheconsonants,gisalwayspronouncedasin“good,”
casin“church,”ñasin“onion.”Thecerebrals(orretroflexes)arespokenwith
thetongueontheroofofthemouth;thedentalswiththetongueontheupper
teeth.Theaspirates—kh,gh,ch,jh,ṭh,ḍh,th,dh,ph,bh—aresingleconsonants
pronounced with slightly more force than the nonaspirates, e.g., th as in
“Thomas” (not as in “thin”); ph as in “putter” (not as in “phone”). Double
consonantsarealwaysenunciatedseparately,e.g.,ddasin“maddog,”ggasin
“biggun.”Thepurenasal(niggahīta)ispronouncedlikethengin“song.”An
oandanealwayscarryastress;otherwisethestressfallsonalongvowel—ā,ī,
,—oronadoubleconsonant,oronṃ.
GENERALINTRODUCTION
UNCOVERINGTHESTRUCTUREOFTHE
TEACHING
Though his teaching is highly systematic, there is no single text that can be
ascribedtotheBuddhainwhichhedefinesthearchitectureoftheDhamma,the
scaffoldinguponwhichhehasframedhisspecificexpressionsofthedoctrine.In
the course of his long ministry, the Buddha taught in different ways as
determined by occasion and circumstances. Sometimes he would enunciate
invariableprinciplesthatstandattheheartoftheteaching.Sometimeshewould
adapttheteachingtoaccordwiththeproclivitiesandaptitudesofthepeoplewho
came to him for guidance. Sometimes he would adjust his exposition to fit a
situation that required a particular response. But throughout the collections of
textsthathavecomedowntousasauthorized“WordoftheBuddha,”wedonot
findasinglesutta,asinglediscourse,inwhichtheBuddhahasdrawntogether
all the elements of his teaching and assigned them to their appropriate place
withinsomecomprehensivesystem.
While in a literate culture in which systematic thought is highly prized the
lackofsuchatextwithaunifyingfunctionmightbeviewedasadefect,inan
entirelyoralculture—aswasthecultureinwhichtheBuddhalivedandmoved—
the lack of a descriptive key to the Dhamma would hardly be considered
significant.Withinthiscultureneitherteachernorstudentaimedatconceptual
completeness.Theteacherdidnotintendtopresentacompletesystemofideas;
hispupilsdidnotaspiretolearnacompletesystemofideas.Theaimthatunited
them in the process of learning—the process of transmission—was that of
practical training, self-transformation, the realization of truth, and unshakable
liberation of the mind. This does not mean, however, that the teaching was
alwaysexpedientlyadaptedtothesituationathand.AttimestheBuddhawould
presentmorepanoramicviewsoftheDhammathatunitedmanycomponentsof
the path in a graded or wide-ranging structure. But though there are several
discoursesthatexhibitabroadscope,theystilldonotembraceallelementsof
theDhammainoneoverarchingscheme.
Thepurposeofthepresentbookistodevelopandexemplifysuchascheme.I
hereattempttoprovideacomprehensivepictureoftheBuddha’steachingthat
incorporatesawidevarietyofsuttasintoanorganicstructure.Thisstructure,I
hope, will bring to light the intentional pattern underlying the Buddha’s
formulation of the Dhamma and thus provide the reader with guidelines for
understanding Early Buddhism as a whole. I have selected the suttas almost
entirelyfromthefourmajorcollectionsorNikāyasofthePāliCanon,thoughI
havealsoincludedafewtextsfromtheUdānaandItivuttaka,twosmallbooksof
the fifth collection, the Khuddaka Nikāya. Each chapter opens with its own
introduction,inwhichIexplainthebasicconceptsofEarlyBuddhismthatthe
textsexemplifyandshowhowthetextsgiveexpressiontotheseideas.
Iwillbrieflysupplybackgroundinformation about theNikāyaslaterinthis
introduction.First,however,IwanttooutlinetheschemethatIhavedevisedto
organizethesuttas.Althoughmyparticularuseofthisschememaybeoriginal,it
is not sheer innovation but is based upon a threefold distinction that the Pāli
commentaries make among the types of benefits to which the practice of the
Dhammaleads:(1)welfareandhappinessvisibleinthispresentlife;(2)welfare
andhappinesspertainingtofuturelives;and(3)theultimategood,Nibbāna(Skt:
nirṿ̄a).
Threepreliminarychaptersaredesignedtoleaduptothosethatembodythis
threefoldscheme.ChapterIisasurveyofthehumanconditionasitisapartfrom
theappearanceofaBuddhaintheworld.Perhapsthiswasthewayhumanlife
appeared to the Bodhisatta—the future Buddha—as he dwelled in the Tusita
heaven gazing down upon the earth, awaiting the appropriate occasion to
descendandtakehisfinalbirth.Webeholdaworldinwhichhumanbeingsare
drivenhelplesslytowardoldageanddeath;inwhichtheyarespunaroundby
circumstancesso that they are oppressed by bodily pain,cast down by failure
and misfortune, made anxious and fearful by change and deterioration. It is a
world in which people aspire to live in harmony, but in which their untamed
emotionsrepeatedlycompelthem,againsttheirbetterjudgment,tolockhornsin
conflicts that escalate into violence and wholesale devastation. Finally, taking
the broadest view of all, it is a world in which sentient beings are propelled
forward, by their own ignorance and craving, from one life to the next,
wanderingblindlythroughthecycleofrebirthscalledsaṃsāra.
ChapterIIgivesanaccountoftheBuddha’sdescentintothisworld.Hecomes
asthe“oneperson”whoappearsoutofcompassionfortheworld,whosearising
in the world is “the manifestation of great light.” We follow the story of his
conception and birth, of his renunciation and quest for enlightenment, of his
realizationoftheDhamma,andofhisdecisiontoteach.Thechapterendswith
his first discourse to the five monks, his first disciples, in the Deer Parknear
Bārāṇasī.
ChapterIIIisintendedtosketchthespecialfeaturesoftheBuddha’steaching,
and by implication, the attitude with which a prospective student should
approach the teaching. The texts tell us that the Dhamma is not a secret or
esotericteachingbutonewhich“shineswhentaughtopenly.”Itdoesnotdemand
blindfaithinauthoritarianscriptures,indivinerevelations,orinfallibledogmas,
but invites investigation and appeals to personal experience as the ultimate
criterionfordeterminingitsvalidity.Theteachingisconcernedwiththearising
andcessationof suffering,whichcanbe observedinone’s ownexperience.It
doesnotsetupeventheBuddhaasanunimpeachableauthoritybutinvitesusto
examinehimtodeterminewhetherhe fully deservesourtrustandconfidence.
Finally,itoffersastep-by-stepprocedurewherebywecanputtheteachingtothe
test,andbydoingsorealizetheultimatetruthforourselves.
WithchapterIV,wecometotextsdealingwiththefirstofthethreetypesof
benefitthe Buddha’s teaching is intended to bring. Thisis called “the welfare
and happiness visible in this present life” (diṭṭhadhamma-hitasukha ), the
happinessthatcomesfromfollowingethicalnormsinone’sfamilyrelationships,
livelihood,andcommunalactivities.AlthoughEarlyBuddhismisoftendepicted
as a radical discipline of renunciation directed to a transcendental goal, the
NikāyasrevealtheBuddhatohavebeenacompassionateandpragmaticteacher
whowasintentonpromoting a socialorderinwhich peoplecanlivetogether
peacefullyandharmoniouslyinaccordancewithethicalguidelines.Thisaspect
ofEarlyBuddhismisevidentintheBuddha’steachingsonthedutiesofchildren
to their parents, on the mutual obligations of husbands and wives, on right
livelihood,onthedutiesoftherulertowardhissubjects,andontheprinciplesof
communalharmonyandrespect.
ThesecondtypeofbenefittowhichtheBuddha’steachingleadsisthesubject
of chapter V, called the welfare and happiness pertaining to the future life
(samparāyika-hitasukha). This is the happiness achieved by obtaining a
fortunaterebirthandsuccessinfuturelivesthroughone’saccumulationofmerit.
Theterm“merit”(puñña)referstowholesomekamma(Skt:karma)considered
intermsofitscapacitytoproducefavorableresultswithintheroundofrebirths.
I begin this chapter with a selection of texts on the teaching of kamma and
rebirth.Thisleadsustogeneraltextsontheideaofmerit,followedbyselections
onthethreeprincipal“basesof merit”recognizedintheBuddha’sdiscourses:
giving (dāna), moral discipline (sīla), and meditation (bhāvanā). Since
meditation figures prominently in the third type of benefit, the kind of
meditationemphasizedhere,asabasisformerit,isthatproductiveofthemost
abundantmundanefruits,thefour“divineabodes”(brahmavihāra),particularly
thedevelopmentofloving-kindness.
Chapter VI is transitional, intended to prepare the way for the chapters to
follow. While demonstrating that the practice of his teaching does indeed
conduceto happinessand goodfortune withinthe boundsof mundane life, in
ordertoleadpeoplebeyondthesebounds,theBuddhaexposesthedangerand
inadequacy in all conditioned existence. He shows the defects in sensual
pleasures,the shortcomingsof materialsuccess, theinevitability ofdeath, and
theimpermanenceofallconditionedrealmsofbeing.Toarouseinhisdisciples
an aspiration for the ultimate good, Nibbāna, the Buddha again and again
underscorestheperilsofsaṃsāra.Thusthischaptercomestoaclimaxwithtwo
dramatictextsthatdwellonthemiseryofbondagetotheroundofrepeatedbirth
anddeath.
ThefollowingfourchaptersaredevotedtothethirdbenefitthattheBuddha’s
teachingisintendedtobring:theultimategood(paramattha),theattainmentof
Nibbāna.Thefirstofthese,chapterVII,givesageneraloverviewofthepathto
liberation,whichistreatedanalyticallythroughdefinitionsofthefactorsofthe
NobleEightfoldPathanddynamicallythroughanaccountofthetrainingofthe
monk.Alongsuttaonthegraduatedpathsurveysthemonastictrainingfromthe
monk’s initial entry upon the life of renunciation to his attainment of
arahantship,thefinalgoal.
ChapterVIIIfocusesuponthetamingofthemind,themajoremphasisinthe
monastic training. I here present texts that discuss the obstacles to mental
development, the means of overcoming these obstacles, different methods of
meditation,andthestatestobeattainedwhentheobstaclesareovercomeandthe
disciplegainsmasteryoverthemind.InthischapterIintroducethedistinction
between samatha and vipassanā , serenity and insight, the one leading to
samādhi or concentration, the other to paññā or wisdom. However, I include
textsthattreatinsightonlyintermsofthemethodsusedtogenerateit,notin
termsofitsactualcontents.
ChapterIX,titled“ShiningtheLightofWisdom,”dealswiththecontentof
insight. For Early Buddhism, and indeed for almost all schools of Buddhism,
insightorwisdomistheprincipalinstrumentofliberation.ThusinthischapterI
focusontheBuddha’steachingsaboutsuchtopicspivotaltothedevelopmentof
wisdom as right view, the five aggregates, the six sense bases, the eighteen
elements,dependentorigination,andtheFourNobleTruths.Thischapterends
withaselectionoftextsonNibbāna,theultimategoalofwisdom.
The final goal is not achieved abruptly but by passing through a series of
stagesthattransformsanindividualfromaworldlingintoanarahant,aliberated
one.ThuschapterX,“ThePlanesofRealization,”offersaselectionoftextson
themainstagesalongtheway.Ifirstpresenttheseriesofstagesasaprogressive
sequence;thenIreturntothestartingpointandexaminethreemajormilestones
withinthisprogression:stream-entry,thestageofnonreturner,andarahantship.I
conclude with a selection of suttas on the Buddha, the foremost among the
arahants,herespokenofundertheepithetheusedmostoftenwhenreferringto
himself,theTathāgata.
THEORIGINSOFTHENIK̄YAS
The texts I have drawn upon to fill out my scheme are, as I said above, all
selectedfromtheNikāyas,themainsuttacollectionsofthePāliCanon.Some
wordsareneededtoexplaintheoriginandnatureofthesesources.
TheBuddhadidnotwritedownanyofhisteachings,norwerehisteachings
recordedinwritingbyhisdisciples.IndiancultureatthetimetheBuddhalived
wasstillpredominantlypreliterate.
1
TheBuddhawanderedfromtowntotownin
the Ganges plain, instructing his monks and nuns, giving sermons to the
householderswhoflockedtohearhimspeak,answeringthequestionsofcurious
inquirers,and engaging indiscussions with peoplefrom all classes of society.
Therecordsofhisteachingsthatwehavedonotcomefromhisownpenorfrom
transcriptions made by those who heard the teaching from him, but from
monasticcouncilsheldafterhisparinibb̄na—hispassingawayintoNibbāna—
forthepurposeofpreservinghisteaching.
Itisunlikelythattheteachingsthatderivefromthesecouncilsreproducethe
Buddha’s words verbatim. The Buddha must have spoken spontaneously and
elaborateduponhisthemesincountlesswaysinresponsetothevariedneedsof
thosewhosoughthisguidance.Preservingbyoraltransmissionsuchavastand
diverserangeofmaterialwouldhaveborderedontheimpossible.Tomoldthe
teachingsintoaformatsuitableforpreservation,themonksresponsibleforthe
texts would have had to collate and edit them to make them better fit for
listening, retention, recitation, memorization, and repetition—the five major
elements in oral transmission. This process, which may have already been
started during the Buddha’s lifetime, would have led to a fair degree of
simplificationandstandardizationofthematerialtobepreserved.
DuringtheBuddha’slife,thediscourseswereclassifiedintoninecategories
according to literary genre: sutta (prose discourses), geyya (mixed prose and
verse), veyyākaraṇa (answers to questions), gāthā (verse), udāna (inspired
utterances), itivuttaka (memorable sayings), jātaka (stories of past births),
abbhutadhamma(marvelousqualities),andvedalla(catechism).
2
Atsomepoint
after his passing, this older systemof classificationwas superceded by a new
scheme that ordered the texts into larger collections called Nikāyas in the
Theravāda Buddhist tradition, Āgamas in the North Indian Buddhist schools.
3
ExactlywhentheNikāya-Āgamaschemebecameascendantisnotknownwith
certainty,butonceitappeareditalmostcompletelyreplacedtheoldersystem.
TheCullavagga,oneofthebooksofthePāliVinayaPiṭaka,givesanaccount
of how the authorized texts were compiled at the first Buddhist council, held
three months after the Buddha’s parinibbāna.According to this report, shortly
after the Buddha’s death the Elder Mahākassapa, the de facto head of the
Saṅgha,selectedfivehundredmonks,allarahantsorliberatedones,tomeetand
compileanauthoritativeversionoftheteachings.Thecounciltookplaceduring
therainsretreatatRājagaha(modernRajgir),thecapitalofMagadha,thenthe
dominant state of Middle India.
4
Mahākassapa first requested the Venerable
Upāli,theforemostspecialistondisciplinarymatters,to recitetheVinaya.On
thebasisofthisrecitation,theVinayaPiṭaka,theCompilationonDiscipline,was
compiled. Mahākassapa then asked the Venerable Ānanda to recite “the
Dhamma,”thatis,thediscourses,and onthebasisof thisrecitation,theSutta
Piṭaka,theCompilationofDiscourses,wascompiled.
TheCullavaggastatesthatwhenĀnandarecitedtheSuttaPiṭaka,theNikāyas
had the same contents as they do now, with the suttas arranged in the same
sequence as they now appear in the Pāli Canon. This narrative doubtlessly
records past history through the lens of a later period. The Āgamas of the
BuddhistschoolsotherthantheTheravādacorrespondtothefourmainNikāyas,
buttheyclassifysuttasdifferentlyandarrangetheircontentsinadifferentorder
fromthePāliNikāyas.ThissuggeststhatiftheNikāya-Āgamaarrangementdid
ariseatthefirstcouncil,thecouncilhadnotyetassignedsuttastotheirdefinitive
placeswithinthisscheme.Alternatively,itispossiblethatthisschemearoseata
latertime.Itcouldhavearisenatsomepointafterthefirstcouncilbutbeforethe
Saṅgha split into different schools. If it arose during the age of sectarian
divisions,itmighthavebeenintroducedbyoneschoolandthenbeenborrowed
byothers,sothatthedifferentschoolswouldassigntheirtextstodifferentplaces
withinthescheme.
While the Cullavagga’s account of the first council may include legendary
materialmixedwithhistoricalfact,thereseemsnoreasontodoubtĀnanda’srole
in the preservation of the discourses. As the Buddha’s personal attendant,
Ānandahadlearnedthediscoursesfromhimandtheothergreatdisciples,kept
them in mind, and taught them to others. During the Buddha’s life he was
praisedfor his retentivecapacities and was appointed “foremostof those who
havelearnedmuch”(etadaggaṃbahussutānaṃ).
5
Few monks might have had
memoriesthatcouldequalĀnanda’s,butalreadyduringtheBuddha’slifetime
individualmonksmustalreadyhavebeguntospecializeinparticulartexts.The
standardization and simplification of the material would have facilitated
memorization.OncethetextsbecameclassifiedintotheNikāyasorĀgamas,the
challenges of preserving and transmitting the textual heritage were solved by
organizing the textual specialists into companies dedicated to specific
collections. Different companies within the Saṅgha could thus focus on
memorizingandinterpretingdifferentcollectionsandthecommunityasawhole
couldavoidplacingexcessivedemandsonthememoriesofindividualmonks.It
isinthiswaythattheteachingswouldcontinueto betransmittedforthenext
threeorfourhundredyears,untiltheywerefinallycommittedtowriting.
6
In the centuries following the Buddha’s death, the Saṅgha became divided
over disciplinary and doctrinal issues until by the third century after the
parinibbāna there were at least eighteen schools of Sectarian Buddhism. Each
sectprobablyhaditsowncollectionoftextsregardedmoreorlessascanonical,
though it is possible that several closely affiliated sects shared the same
collection of authorized texts. While the different Buddhist schools may have
organizedtheircollectionsdifferentlyandthoughtheirsuttasshowdifferencesof
detail, the individual suttas are often remarkably similar, sometimes almost
identical,andthedoctrinesandpracticestheydelineateareessentiallythesame.
7
The doctrinal differences between the schools did not arise from the suttas
themselves but from the interpretations the textual specialists imposed upon
them. Such differences hardened after the rival schools formalized their
philosophical principles in treatises and commentaries expressive of their
distinctive standpoints on doctrinal issues. So far as we can determine, the
refined philosophical systems had only minimal impact on the original texts
themselves, which the schools seemed disinclined to manipulate to suit their
doctrinalagendas.Instead,bymeansoftheircommentaries,theyendeavoredto
interpretthesuttasinsuchawayastodrawoutideasthatsupportedtheirown
views. It is not unusual for such interpretations to appear defensive and
contrived,apologeticagainstthewordsoftheoriginaltextsthemselves.
THEPĀLICANON
Sadly, the canonical collections belonging to most of the early mainstream
IndianBuddhistschoolswerelostwhenIndianBuddhismwasdevastatedbythe
MuslimsthatinvadednorthernIndiaintheeleventhandtwelfthcenturies.These
invasions effectively sounded the death knell for Buddhism in the land of its
birth.OnlyonecompletecollectionoftextsbelongingtooneoftheearlyIndian
Buddhistschoolsmanagedtosurviveintact.Thisisthecollectionpreservedin
the language that we know as Pāli. This collection belonged to the ancient
Theravādaschool,whichhadbeentransplantedtoSriLankainthethirdcentury
B.C.E.and thusmanaged toescape thehavoc wroughtupon Buddhismin the
motherland.Aboutthesametime,theTheravādaalsospreadtosoutheastAsia
andinlatercenturiesbecamedominantthroughouttheregion.
ThePāliCanonisthecollectionoftextstheTheravādaregardsasWordofthe
Buddha(buddhavacana).Thefactthatthetextsofthiscollectionhavesurvived
asasinglecanondoesnotmeanthattheycanallbedatedfromthesameperiod;
nordoesitmeanthatthetextsformingitsmostarchaicnucleusarenecessarily
moreancientthantheircounterpartsfromtheotherBuddhistschools,manyof
whichhavesurvivedinChineseorTibetantranslationaspartsofentirecanons
or,inafewcases,asisolatedtextsinanotherIndianlanguage.Nevertheless,the
Pāli Canon has a special importance for us, and that is so for at least three
reasons.
First,itisacompletecollectionallbelongingtoasingleschool.Eventhough
wecandetectclearsignsofhistoricaldevelopmentbetweendifferentportionsof
thecanon,thisalignmentwithasingleschoolgivesthetextsacertaindegreeof
uniformity.Amongthetextsstemmingfromthesameperiod,wecanevenspeak
of a homogeneity of contents, a single flavor underlying the manifold
expressions of the doctrine. This homogeneity is most evident in the four
NikāyasandtheolderpartsofthefifthNikāyaandgivesus reasontobelieve
thatwiththesetexts—allowingforthequalificationexpressedabove,thatthey
havecounterpartsinotherextinctBuddhistschools—wehavereachedthemost
ancientstratumofBuddhistliteraturediscoverable.
Second, the entire collection has been preserved in a Middle Indo-Aryan
language, one closely related to the language (or, more likely, the various
regionaldialects)thattheBuddhahimselfspoke.WecallthislanguagePāli,but
thenameforthelanguageactuallyarosethroughamisunderstanding.Theword
pāli properly means “text,” that is, the canonical text as distinct from the
commentaries. The commentators refer to the language in which the texts are
preservedaspālibhāsā,“thelanguageofthetexts.”Atsomepoint,thetermwas
misunderstoodtomean“thePālilanguage,”andoncethemisconceptionarose,it
took root and has been with us ever since. Scholars regard this language as a
hybridshowingfeaturesofseveralPrakritdialectsusedaroundthethirdcentury
B.C.E.,subjectedtoapartialprocessofSanskritization.
8
Whilethelanguageis
notidenticalwithanytheBuddhahimselfwouldhavespoken,itbelongstothe
samebroadlinguisticfamilyasthosehemighthaveusedandoriginatesfromthe
sameconceptualmatrix.Thislanguagethusreflectsthethought-worldthatthe
BuddhainheritedfromthewiderIndiancultureintowhichhewasborn,sothat
itswordscapturethesubtlenuancesofthatthought-worldwithouttheintrusion
ofalieninfluencesinevitableineventhebestandmostscrupuloustranslations.
ThiscontrastswithChinese,Tibetan,orEnglishtranslationsofthetexts,which
reverberatewiththeconnotationsofthewordschosenfromthetargetlanguages.
ThethirdreasonthePāliCanonhasspecialimportanceisthatthiscollection
is authoritative for a contemporary Buddhist school. Unlike the textual
collections of the extinct schools of Early Buddhism, which are purely of
academic interest, this collection still brims with life. It inspires the faith of
millionsofBuddhistsfromthevillagesandmonasteriesofSriLanka,Myanmar,
and Southeast Asia to the cities and meditation centers of Europe and the
Americas. It shapes their understanding, guides them in the face of difficult
ethicalchoices,informstheirmeditativepractices,andoffersthemthekeysto
liberatinginsight.
ThePāliCanoniscommonlyknownastheTipiṭaka,the“ThreeBaskets”or
“Three Compilations.” This threefold classification was not unique to the
TheravādaschoolbutwasincommonuseamongtheIndianBuddhistschoolsas
a way to categorize the Buddhist canonical texts. Even today the scriptures
preservedinChinesetranslationareknownastheChineseTripiṭaka.Thethree
compilationsofthePāliCanonare:
1. The Vinaya Piṭaka, the Compilation of Discipline, which contains the
rules laid down for the guidance of the monks and nuns and the
regulations prescribed for the harmonious functioning of the monastic
order.
2. The Sutta Piṭaka, the Compilation of Discourses, which contains the
suttas,thediscoursesoftheBuddhaandthoseofhischief disciplesas
wellasinspirationalworksinverse,versenarratives,andcertainworks
ofacommentarialnature.
3.TheAbhidhammaPiṭaka,theCompilationofPhilosophy,acollectionof
seven treatises which subject the Buddha’s teachings to rigorous
philosophicalsystematization.
The Abhidhamma Piṭaka is obviously the product of a later phase in the
evolution of Buddhist thought than the other two Piṭakas. The Pāli version
represents the Theravāda school’s attempt to systematize the older teachings.
Other early schools apparently had their own Abhidhamma systems. The
Sarvāstivādasystemistheonlyonewhosecanonicaltextshavesurvivedintact
intheir entirety. Itscanonical collection,like thePāli version,also consistsof
seventexts.ThesewereoriginallycomposedinSanskritbutarepreservedinfull
only in Chinese translation. The system they define differs significantly from
thatofitsTheravādacounterpartinbothformulationandphilosophy.
TheSuttaPiṭaka,whichcontainstherecordsoftheBuddha’sdiscoursesand
discussions, consists of five collections called Nikāyas. In the age of the
commentators they were also known as Āgamas, like their counterparts in
northernBuddhism.ThefourmajorNikāyasare:
1.TheDīghaNikāya:theCollectionofLongDiscourses,thirty-foursuttas
arrangedintothreevaggas,orbooks.
2.TheMajjhimaNikāya:theCollectionofMiddleLengthDiscourses,152
suttasarrangedintothreevaggas.
3.TheSaṃyuttaNikāya:theCollectionofConnectedDiscourses,closeto
three thousand short suttas grouped into fifty-six chapters, called
saṃyuttas,whichareinturncollectedintofivevaggas.
4. The Aṅguttara Nikāya: the Collection of Numerical Discourses (or,
perhaps, “Incremental Discourses”), approximately 2,400 short suttas
arrangedintoelevenchapters,callednipātas.
The Dīgha Nikāya and Majjhima Nikāya, at first glance, seem to be
establishedprincipallyonthebasisoflength:thelongerdiscoursesgointothe
Dīgha, the middle-length discourses into the Majjhima. Careful tabulations of
theircontents,however,suggestthatanotherfactormightunderliethedistinction
betweenthesetwocollections.ThesuttasoftheDīghaNikāyaarelargelyaimed
at a popular audience and seem intended to attract potential converts to the
teachingbydemonstratingthesuperiorityoftheBuddhaandhisdoctrine.The
suttasoftheMajjhimaNikāyaarelargelydirectedinwardtowardtheBuddhist
community and seem designed to acquaint newly ordained monks with the
doctrinesandpracticesofBuddhism.
9
Itremainsanopenquestionwhetherthese
pragmatic purposes are the determining criteria behind these two Nikāyas or
whethertheprimarycriterionislength,withthesepragmaticpurposesfollowing
asincidentalconsequencesoftheirrespectivedifferencesinlength.
TheSaṃyuttaNikāyaisorganizedbywayofsubjectmatter.Eachsubjectis
the“yoke”(saṃyoga) that connects the discourses into a saṃyutta or chapter.
Hencethetitleofthecollection,the“connected(saṃyutta)discourses.”Thefirst
book,theBookwithVerses,isuniqueinbeingcompiledonthebasisofliterary
genre.Itcontainssuttasinmixedproseandverse,arrangedinelevenchaptersby
wayofsubject.Theotherfourbookseachcontainlongchaptersdealingwiththe
principaldoctrinesofEarlyBuddhism.BooksII,III,andIVeachopenwitha
long chapter devoted to a theme of major importance, respectively, dependent
origination (chapter 12: Nidānasaṃyutta); the five aggregates (chapter 22:
Khandhasaṃyutta); and the six internal and external sense bases (chapter 35:
Saḷāyatanasaṃyutta).PartVdealswiththeprincipalgroupsoftrainingfactors
that, in the post-canonical period, come to be called the thirty-seven aids to
enlightenment (bodhipakkhiyā dhammā). These include the Noble Eightfold
Path(chapter45:Maggasaṃyutta),thesevenfactorsofenlightenment(chapter
46: Bojjhaṅgasaṃyutta ), and the four establishments of mindfulness (chapter
47:Satipaṭṭhānasaṃyutta).Fromitscontents,wemightinferthattheSaṃyutta
Nikāyawasintendedtoservetheneedsoftwogroupswithinthemonasticorder.
Oneconsistedofthedoctrinalspecialists,thosemonksandnunswhosoughtto
explore the deep implications of the Dhamma and to elucidate them for their
companions in the religious life. The other consisted of those devoted to the
meditativedevelopmentofinsight.
TheAṅguttara Nikāyais arrangedaccording to a numerical schemederived
from a peculiar feature of the Buddha’s pedagogic method. To facilitate easy
comprehensionandmemorization,the Buddhaoftenformulatedhis discourses
by way of numerical sets, a format that helped to ensure that the ideas he
conveyed would be easily retained in mind. TheAṅguttara Nikāya assembles
these numerical discourses into a single massive work of eleven nipātas or
chapters, each representing the number of terms upon which the constituent
suttashavebeenframed.ThusthereistheChapteroftheOnes(ekakanipāta),
the Chapter of the Twos (dukanipāta), the Chapter of the Threes (tikanipāta),
andsoforth,uptoandendingwiththeChapteroftheElevens(ekādasanipāta).
SincethevariousgroupsofpathfactorshavebeenincludedintheSaṃyutta,the
Aṅguttara can focus on those aspects of the training that have not been
incorporatedintherepetitivesets.TheAṅguttaraincludesanotableproportion
of suttas addressed to lay followers dealing with the ethical and spiritual
concernsoflifewithintheworld,includingfamilyrelationships(husbandsand
wives, children and parents) and the proper ways to acquire, save, and utilize
wealth. Other suttas deal with the practical training of monks. The numerical
arrangement of this collection makes it particularly convenient for formal
instruction, and thus it could easily be drawn upon by elder monks when
teachingtheirpupilsandbypreacherswhengivingsermonstothelaity.
BesidesthefourmajorNikāyas,thePāliSuttaPiṭakaincludesafifthNikāya,
calledtheKhuddakaNikāya.ThisnamemeanstheMinorCollection.Perhapsit
originally consisted merely of a number of minor works that could not be
includedinthefourmajorNikāyas.Butasmoreandmoreworkswerecomposed
over the centuries and added to it, its dimensions swelled until it became the
mostvoluminousofthefiveNikāyas.AttheheartoftheKhuddaka,however,is
asmallconstellationofshortworkscomposedeitherentirelyinverse(namely,
the Dhammapada, the Theragāthā, and the Therīgāthā) or in mixed prose and
verse(theSuttanipāta,theUdāna,andtheItivuttaka)whosestyleandcontents
suggestthattheyareofgreatantiquity.OthertextsoftheKhuddakaNikāya—
suchasthePaṭisambhidāmaggaandthetwoNiddesas—representthestandpoint
oftheTheravādaschoolandthusmusthavebeencomposedduringtheperiodof
Sectarian Buddhism, when the early schools had taken their separate paths of
doctrinaldevelopment.
ThefourNikāyasofthePāliCanonhavecounterpartsintheĀgamasofthe
ChineseTripiṭaka,thoughthesearefromdifferentearlyschools.Corresponding
to each respectively there is a Dirghāgama, probably stemming from the
Dharmaguptakaschool,originallytranslatedfromaPrakrit;aMadhyamāgama
andSamyuktāgama,bothstemmingfromtheSarvāstivādaschoolandtranslated
from Sanskrit; and an Ekottarāgama, corresponding to the Aṅguttara Nikāya,
generallythoughttohavebelongedtoabranchoftheMahāsāṅghikaschooland
tohavebeentranslatedfromadialectofMiddleIndo-Aryanoramixeddialect
of Prakrit with Sanskrit elements. The Chinese Tripiṭaka also contains
translations of individual sūtras from the four collections, perhaps from still
otherunidentifiedschools,andtranslationsofindividualbooksfromtheMinor
Collection, including two translations of a Dhammapada (one said to be very
closetothePāliversion)andpartsoftheSuttanipāta,which,asaunifiedwork,
doesnotexistinChinesetranslation.
10
ANOTEONSTYLE
ReadersofthePālisuttasareoftenannoyedbytherepetitivenessofthetexts.It
isdifficulttotellhowmuchofthisstemsfromtheBuddhahimself,whoasan
itinerant preacher must have used repetition to reinforce his points, and how
muchisduetothecompilers.Itisobvious,however,thatahighproportionof
therepetitivenessderivesfromtheprocessoforaltransmission.
ToavoidexcessiverepetitivenessinthetranslationIhavehadtomakeample
use of elisions. In this respect I follow the printed editions of the Pāli texts,
which are also highly abridged, but a translation intended for a contemporary
readerrequiresstillmorecompressionifitistoavoidriskingthereaderswrath.
Ontheotherhand,Ihavebeenkeentoseethatnothingessentialtotheoriginal
text, including the flavor, has been lost due to the abridgment. The ideals of
consideratenesstothereaderandfidelity to thetextsometimesmakecontrary
demandsonatranslator.
The treatment of repetition patterns in which the same utterance is made
regardingasetofitemsisaperpetualproblemintranslatingPālisuttas.When
translatingasuttaaboutthefiveaggregates,forexample,oneistemptedtoforgo
the enumeration of the individual aggregates and instead turn the sutta into a
generalstatementabouttheaggregatesasaclass.Tomymind,suchanapproach
risks turning translation into paraphrase and thereby losing too much of the
original.Mygeneralpolicyhasbeentotranslatethefullutteranceinrelationto
thefirstandlastmembersofthesetandmerelytoenumeratetheintermediate
membersseparatedbyellipsispoints.Thus,inasuttaaboutthefiveaggregates,I
render the statement in full only for form and consciousness, and in between
have“feeling…perception…volitionalformations…,”implyingtherebythat
thefullstatementlikewiseappliestothem.
Thisapproachhasrequiredthefrequentuseofellipsispoints,apracticethat
also invites criticism. When faced with repetitive passages in the narrative
framework,Ihavesometimescondensedthemratherthanuseellipsispointsto
showwheretextisbeingelided.However,withtextsofdoctrinalexpositionI
adheretothepracticedescribedintheprecedingparagraph.Ithinkthetranslator
has the responsibility, when translating passages of doctrinal significance, to
showexactlywheretextisbeingelided,andforthisellipsispointsremainthe
besttoolathand.
I.TheHumanCondition
INTRODUCTION
Likeotherreligiousteachings,theBuddha’steachingoriginatesasaresponseto
thestrainsattheheartofthehumancondition.Whatdistinguisheshisteaching
from other religious approaches to the human condition is the directness,
thoroughness,anduncompromisingrealismwithwhichhelooksatthesestrains.
The Buddha does not offer us palliatives that leave the underlying maladies
untouchedbeneaththesurface;rather,hetracesourexistentialillnessdowntoits
mostfundamentalcauses,sopersistentanddestructive,andshowsushowthese
canbetotallyuprooted.However,whiletheDhammawilleventuallyleadtothe
wisdomthateradicatesthecausesofsuffering,itdoesnotbegintherebutwith
observationsaboutthehardfactsofeverydayexperience.Heretooitsdirectness,
thoroughness, and tough realism are evident. The teaching begins by calling
upon us to develop a faculty called yoniso manasikāra, careful attention. The
Buddhaasks us to stop drifting thoughtlessly through ourlives and instead to
pay careful attention to simple truths that are everywhere available to us,
clamoringforthesustainedconsiderationtheydeserve.
One of the most obvious and inescapable of these truths is also among the
mostdifficultforustofullyacknowledge,namely,thatweareboundtogrow
old, fall ill, and die. It is commonly assumed that the Buddha beckons us to
recognizethereality ofoldage anddeath inorder to motivateus toenterthe
pathofrenunciationleadingtoNibbāna,completeliberationfromtheroundof
birthanddeath.However,whilethismaybehisultimateintention,itisnotthe
firstresponseheseeks to evokeinuswhen weturntohim for guidance.The
initialresponsetheBuddhaintendstoarouseinusisanethicalone.Bycalling
ourattentiontoourbondagetooldageanddeath,heseekstoinspireinusafirm
resolution to turn away from unwholesome ways of living and to embrace
insteadwholesomealternatives.
Again, the Buddha grounds his initial ethical appeal not only upon a
compassionatefeelingforotherbeings,butalsouponourinstinctiveconcernfor
ourownlong-termwelfareandhappiness.Hetriestomakeusseethattoactin
accordancewithethicalguidelineswillenableustosecureourownwell-being
both now and in the long-term future. His argument hinges on the important
premisethatactionshaveconsequences.Ifwearetoalterouraccustomedways,
wemust beconvinced ofthe validityof thisprinciple. Specifically, to change
from a self-stultifying way of life to one that is truly fruitful and inwardly
rewarding, we must realize that our actions have consequences for ourselves,
consequencesthatcanrebounduponusbothinthislifeandinsubsequentlives.
Thethreesuttasthatconstitutethefirstsectionofthischapterestablishthis
pointeloquently,eachinitsownway.TextI,1(1)enunciatestheinevitablelaw
thatallbeingswhohavetakenbirthmustundergoaginganddeath.Althoughat
firstglancethediscourseseemstobestatingamerefactofnature,bycitingas
examplesmembersoftheupperstrataofsociety(wealthyrulers,brahmins,and
householders)andliberatedarahants,itinsinuatesasubtlemoralmessageintoits
words.TextI,1(2)bringsout this message moreexplicitly with itsimpressive
simileofthemountain,whichdriveshomethepointthatwhen“aginganddeath
arerollingin”onus,ourtaskinlifeistoliverighteouslyanddowholesomeand
meritorious deeds. The sutta on the “divine messengers”—Text I,1(3)
establishes the corollary to this: when we fail to recognize the “divine
messengers”inourmidst,whenwemissthehiddenwarningsignalsofoldage,
illness, and death, we become negligent and behave recklessly, creating
unwholesomekammawiththepotentialtoyielddreadfulconsequences.
The realization that we are bound to grow old and die breaks the spell of
infatuationcastoverusbysensualpleasures,wealth,andpower.Itdispelsthe
mistofconfusionandmotivatesustotakefreshstockofourpurposesinlife.We
may not be ready to give up family and possessions for a life of homeless
wanderingandsolitarymeditation,butthisisnotanoptiontheBuddhagenerally
expectsofhishouseholderdisciples.Rather,aswesawabove,thefirstlessonhe
draws from the fact that our lives end in old age and death is an ethical one
interwovenwiththetwinprinciplesofkammaandrebirth.Thelawofkamma
stipulates that our unwholesome and wholesome actions have consequences
extendingfar beyond this present life: unwholesome actions lead to rebirth in
statesofmiseryandbringfuturepainandsuffering;wholesomeactionsleadtoa
pleasant rebirth and bring future well-being and happiness. Since we have to
growoldanddie,weshouldbeconstantlyawarethatanypresentprosperitywe
mightenjoyismerelytemporary.Wecanenjoyitonlyaslongasweareyoung
and healthy; and when we die, our newly acquired kamma will gain the
opportunitytoripenandbringforthitsownresults.Wemustthenreapthedue
fruits of our deeds. With an eye to our long-term future welfare, we should
scrupulously avoid evil deeds that result in suffering and diligently engage in
wholesomedeedsthatgeneratehappinesshereandinfuturelives.
In the second section, we explore three aspects of human life that I have
collected under the heading “The Tribulations of Unreflective Living.” These
types of suffering differ from those connected with old age and death in an
importantrespect.Oldageanddeathareboundupwithbodilyexistenceandare
thus unavoidable, common to both ordinary people and liberated arahants—a
pointmadeinthefirsttextofthischapter.Incontrast,thethreetextsincludedin
thissectionalldistinguishbetweentheordinaryperson,called“theuninstructed
worldling”(assutavāputhujjana),andthewisefollower oftheBuddha, called
the“instructednobledisciple”(sutavāariyasāvaka).
The first of these distinctions, drawn in Text I,2(1), revolves around the
response to painful feelings. Both the worldling and the noble disciple
experiencepainfulbodilyfeelings,buttheyrespondtothesefeelingsdifferently.
Theworldlingreactstothemwithaversionandtherefore,ontopofthepainful
bodilyfeeling,alsoexperiencesapainfulmentalfeeling:sorrow,resentment,or
distress. The noble disciple, when afflicted with bodily pain, endures such
feeling patiently, without sorrow, resentment, or distress. It is commonly
assumedthatphysical andmental painareinseparably linked,but theBuddha
makes a clear demarcation between the two. He holds that while bodily
existenceisinevitablyboundupwithphysicalpain,suchpainneednottrigger
theemotionalreactionsofmisery,fear,resentment,anddistresswithwhichwe
habitually respond to it. Through mental training we can develop the
mindfulness and clear comprehension necessary to endure physical pain
courageously, with patience and equanimity. Through insight we can develop
sufficientwisdomtoovercomeourdreadofpainfulfeelingsandourneedtoseek
reliefindistractingbingesofsensualself-indulgence.
Anotheraspectofhumanlifethatbringstotheforethedifferencesbetween
theworldlingandthenoblediscipleisthechangingvicissitudesoffortune.The
Buddhisttextsneatlyreducethesetofourpairsofopposites,knownastheeight
worldly conditions (aṭṭha lokadhammā): gain and loss, fame and disrepute,
praiseandblame,pleasureandpain.TextI,2(2)showshowtheworldlingand
thenoblediscipledifferintheirresponsestothesechanges.Whiletheworldling
iselatedbysuccessinachievinggain,fame,praise,andpleasure,anddejected
when confronted with their undesired opposites, the noble disciple remains
unperturbed.Byapplyingtheunderstandingofimpermanencetobothfavorable
and unfavorable conditions, the noble disciple can abide in equanimity, not
attached to favorable conditions, not repelled by unfavorable ones. Such a
disciplegivesuplikesanddislikes,sorrowanddistress,andultimatelywinsthe
highestblessingofall:completefreedomfromsuffering.
TextI,2(3)examinestheplightoftheworldlingatastillmorefundamental
level. Because they misconceive things, worldlings are agitated by change,
especially when that change affectstheir own bodies and minds. The Buddha
classifiestheconstituentsofbodyandmindintofivecategoriesknownas“the
five aggregates subject to clinging” (pañc’upādānakkhandhā): form, feeling,
perception, volitional formations, and consciousness (for details, see pp. 305–
07). These five aggregates are the building blocks that we typically use to
constructoursenseofpersonalidentity;theyarethethingsthatweclingtoas
being“mine,”“I,”and“myself.”Whateverweidentifywith,whateverwetake
tobeaselforthepossessionsofaself,canallbeclassifiedamongthesefive
aggregates.Thefiveaggregatesarethustheultimategroundsof“identification”
and“appropriation,” the two basic activities by whichwe establish a sense of
selfhood.Sinceweinvestournotionsofselfhoodandpersonalidentitywithan
intenseemotionalconcern,whentheobjectstowhichtheyarefastened—thefive
aggregates—undergo change, we naturally experience anxiety and distress. In
ourperception,itisnotmereimpersonalphenomenathatareundergoingchange,
butourveryidentities,ourcherishedselves,andthisiswhatwefearmostofall.
However, as the present text shows, a noble disciple has clearly seen with
wisdom the delusive nature of all notions of permanent selfhood and thus no
longer identifies with the five aggregates. Therefore the noble disciple can
confronttheirchangewithoutanxiousconcern,unperturbedinthefaceoftheir
alteration,decay,anddestruction.
Agitationandturmoilafflicthumanlifenotonlyatthepersonalandprivate
level,butalsoinoursocialinteractions.Fromthemostancienttimes,ourworld
hasalwaysbeenoneofviolentconfrontationsandconflict.Thenames,places,
and instruments of destruction may change, but the forces behind them, the
motivations, the expressions of greed and hate, remain fairly constant. The
Nikāyas testify that the Buddha was intensely aware of this dimension of the
humancondition.Althoughhisteaching,withitsstressonethicalself-discipline
and mental self-cultivation, aims primarily at personal enlightenment and
liberation,theBuddhaalsosoughttoofferpeoplearefugefromtheviolenceand
injustice that rack human lives in such cruel ways. This is apparent in his
emphasis on loving-kindness and compassion; on harmlessness in action and
gentlenessinspeech;andonthepeacefulresolutionofdisputes.
The third section of this chapter includes four short texts dealing with the
underlyingroots ofviolent conflictand injustice.We cansee fromthese texts
thattheBuddhadoesnot clamorforchangesmerelyin the outerstructuresof
society.Hedemonstratesthatthesedarkphenomenaareexternalprojectionsof
theunwholesomeproclivitiesofthehumanmindandthuspointstotheneedfor
inner change as a parallel condition for establishing peace and social justice.
Eachofthefourtextsincludedinthissectiontracesconflict,violence,political
oppression, and economic injustice back to their causes; each in its own way
locatesthesecauseswithinthemind.
TextI,3(1)explainsconflictsbetweenlaypeopleasarisingfromattachmentto
sensual pleasures, conflicts between ascetics as arising from attachment to
views. Text I,3(2), a dialogue between the Buddha and Sakka, the pre-
Buddhistic Indian ruler of the devas, traces hatred and enmity to envy and
niggardliness; from there the Buddha traces them back to fundamental
distortions that affect the way our perception and cognition process the
information provided by the senses. Text I,3(3) offers another version of the
famous chain of causation, which proceeds from feeling to craving, and from
cravingviaotherconditionsto“thetakingupofclubsandweapons”andother
typesofviolentbehavior.TextI,3(4)depictshowthethreerootsofevil—greed,
hatred,anddelusion—haveterriblerepercussionsonawholesociety,issuingin
violence,thelustforpower,andtheunjustinflictionofsuffering.Allfourtexts
imply that any significant and lasting transformations of society require
significantchangesinthemoralfiberofindividualhumanbeings;foraslongas
greed, hatred, and delusion run rampant as determinants of conduct, the
consequencesareboundtobeconsistentlydetrimental.
The Buddha’s teaching addresses a fourth aspect of the human condition
which,unlikethethreewehavesofarexamined,isnotimmediatelyperceptible
tous.Thisisourbondagetotheroundofrebirths.Fromtheselectionoftexts
includedinthefinalsectioninthischapter,weseethattheBuddhateachesour
individuallifespantobemerelyasinglephasewithinaseriesofrebirthsthathas
been proceeding without any discernible beginning in time. This series of
rebirthsiscalledsaṃsāra,aPāliwordwhichsuggeststheideaofdirectionless
wandering. No matter how far back in time we may seek a beginning to the
universe,weneverfindaninitialmomentofcreation.Nomatterhowfarback
wemaytraceanygivenindividualsequenceoflives,wecanneverarriveata
first point. According to TextsI,4(1) and I,4(2), even if we were to trace the
sequenceofourmothersandfathersacrossworldsystems,wewouldonlycome
uponstillmoremothersandfathersstretchingbackintothefarhorizons.
Moreover,theprocessisnotonlybeginninglessbutisalsopotentiallyendless.
As long as ignorance and craving remain intact, the process will continue
indefinitely into the future with no end in sight. For the Buddha and Early
Buddhism, this is above all the defining crisis at the heart of the human
condition:weareboundtoachainofrebirths,andboundtoitbynothingother
than our own ignorance and craving. The pointless wandering on in saṃsāra
occurs against a cosmic background of inconceivably vast dimensions. The
period of time that it takes for a world system to evolve, reach its phase of
maximum expansion, contract, and then disintegrate is called a kappa (Skt:
kalpa),aneon.TextI,4(3)offers a vivid simile tosuggest the eon’s duration;
TextI,4(4),anothervividsimiletoillustratetheincalculablenumberoftheeons
throughwhichwehavewandered.
Asbeingswanderandroamfromlifetolife,shroudedindarkness,theyfall
againandagainintothechasmofbirth,aging,sickness,anddeath.Butbecause
their craving propels them forward in a relentless quest for gratification, they
seldompauselongenoughtostepbackandattendcarefullytotheirexistential
plight.AsTextI,4(5)states,theyinstead justkeep revolvingaround the “five
aggregates”inthewayadogonaleashmightrunaroundapostorpillar.Since
their ignorance prevents them from recognizing the vicious nature of their
condition, they cannot discern even the tracks of a path to deliverance. Most
beingsliveimmersedintheenjoymentofsensualpleasures.Others,drivenby
theneedforpower,status,andesteem,passtheirlivesinvainattemptstofillan
unquenchable thirst. Many, fearful of annihilation at death, construct belief
systemsthatascribetotheirindividualselves,theirsouls,theprospectofeternal
life.Afewyearnforapathtoliberationbutdonotknowwheretofindone.It
waspreciselytooffersuchapaththattheBuddhahasappearedinourmidst.
I.THEHUMANCONDITION
1.OLDAGE,ILLNESS,ANDDEATH
(1)AgingandDeath
AtSāvatthī,KingPasenadiofKosalasaidtotheBlessedOne:“Venerablesir,is
anyonewhoisbornfreefromaginganddeath?”
1
“Great king, no one who is born is free from aging and death. Even those
affluentkhattiyas—rich,withgreatwealthandproperty,withabundantgoldand
silver,abundanttreasuresandcommodities,abundantwealthandgrain—because
they have been born, are not free from aging and death. Even those affluent
brahmins…affluenthouseholders—rich…withabundantwealthandgrain—
because they have been born, are not free from aging and death. Even those
monkswho are arahants, whosetaints are destroyed, whohave lived the holy
life,donewhathadtobedone,laiddowntheburden,reachedtheirowngoal,
utterlydestroyedthefetters ofexistence,and arecompletelyliberatedthrough
finalknowledge:evenforthem this bodyissubjectto breaking up,subjectto
beinglaiddown.
2
“Thebeautifulchariotsofkingswearout,
Thisbodytooundergoesdecay.
ButtheDhammaofthegooddoesnotdecay:
Sothegoodproclaimalongwiththegood.”
(SN3:3;I71<163–64>)
(2)TheSimileoftheMountain
AtSāvatthī,inthemiddleoftheday,KingPasenadiofKosalaapproachedthe
BlessedOne,paidhomagetohim,andsatdowntooneside.TheBlessedOne
thenaskedhim:“Nowwhereareyoucomingfrom,greatking,inthemiddleof
theday?”
“Just now, venerable sir, I have been engaged in those affairs of kingship
typicalforkings,whoareintoxicatedwiththeintoxicationofsovereignty,who
areobsessedbygreedforsensualpleasures,whohaveattainedstablecontrolin
their country, and who rule having conquered a great sphere of territory on
earth.”
“Whatdoyouthink,greatking?Supposeamanwouldcometoyoufromthe
east,onewho istrustworthy andreliable,and wouldtell you:‘Forsure, great
king,youshouldknowthis:Iamcomingfromtheeast,andthereIsawagreat
mountain high as the clouds coming this way, crushing all living beings. Do
whateveryouthinkshouldbedone,greatking.’Thenasecondmanwouldcome
toyoufromthewest...athirdmanfromthenorth...andafourthmanfromthe
south,onewhoistrustworthyandreliable,andwouldtellyou:‘Forsure,great
king,youshouldknowthis:Iamcomingfromthesouth,andthereIsawagreat
mountain high as the clouds coming this way, crushing all living beings. Do
whateveryouthinkshouldbedone,greatking.’If,greatking,suchagreatperil
shouldarise,suchaterribledestructionofhumanlife,thehumanstatebeingso
difficulttoobtain,whatshouldbedone?”
“If,venerablesir,suchagreatperilshouldarise,suchaterribledestructionof
humanlife,thehumanstatebeingsodifficulttoobtain,whatelseshouldbedone
but to live by the Dhamma, to live righteously, and to do wholesome and
meritoriousdeeds?”
“Iinformyou,greatking,Iannouncetoyou,greatking:aginganddeathare
rollinginonyou.Whenaginganddeatharerollinginonyou,greatking,what
shouldbedone?”
“Asaginganddeatharerollinginonme,venerablesir,whatelseshouldbe
donebuttolivebytheDhamma,toliverighteously,andtodowholesomeand
meritoriousdeeds?
“Venerable sir, kings intoxicated with the intoxication of sovereignty,
obsessedbygreedforsensualpleasures,whohaveattainedstablecontrolintheir
countryandruleoveragreatsphereofterritory,conquerbymeansofelephant
battles,cavalrybattles,chariotbattles,andinfantrybattles;butthereisnohope
of victory by such battles, no chance of success, when aging and death are
rollingin.Inthisroyalcourt,venerablesir,therearecounselorswho,whenthe
enemiesarrive,arecapableofdividingthembysubterfuge;butthereisnohope
ofvictorybysubterfuge,nochanceofsuccess,whenaginganddeatharerolling
in.Inthisroyalcourt,venerablesir,thereexistsabundantbullionandgoldstored
in vaults and lofts, and with such wealth we are capable of mollifying the
enemieswhentheycome;butthereisnohopeofvictorybywealth,nochanceof
success,whenaginganddeatharerollingin.Asaginganddeatharerollingin
on me, venerable sir, what else should I do but live by the Dhamma, live
righteously,anddowholesomeandmeritoriousdeeds?”
“Soitis,greatking!Soitis,greatking!Asaginganddeatharerollinginon
you,whatelseshouldyoudobutlivebytheDhamma,liverighteously,anddo
wholesomeandmeritoriousdeeds?”
ThisiswhattheBlessedOnesaid.Havingsaidthis,theFortunateOne,the
Teacher,furthersaidthis:
“Justasmountainsofsolidrock,
Massive,reachingtothesky,
Mightdrawtogetherfromallsides,
Crushingallinthefourquarters—
Soaginganddeathcome
Rollingoverlivingbeings—
“Khattiyas,brahmins,vessas,suddas,
Outcastsandscavengers:
Theysparenonealongtheway
Butcomecrushingeverything.
“There’snohopethereforvictory
Byelephanttroops,chariots,andinfantry.
Onecan’tdefeatthembysubterfuge,
Orbuythemoffbymeansofwealth.
“Thereforeapersonofwisdomhere,
Outofregardforhisowngood,
Steadfast,shouldsettlefaith
IntheBuddha,Dhamma,andSaṅgha.
“WhenoneconductsoneselfbyDhamma
Withbody,speech,andmind,
Theypraiseonehereinthepresentlife,
Andafterdeathonerejoicesinheaven.”
(SN3:25;I100–102<224–29>)
(3)TheDivineMessengers
“Thereare,monks,threedivinemessengers.
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Whatthree?
“There is a person of bad conduct in body, speech, and mind. On the
dissolutionofthebody,afterdeath,heisrebornintheplaneofmisery,inabad
destination,inalowerworld,inhell.Therethewardersofhellseizehimbyboth
armsand take him beforeYama,the Lord ofDeath,
4
saying:‘This man, your
majesty,hadnorespectforfatherandmother,norforasceticsandbrahmins,nor
didhehonortheeldersofthefamily.Mayyourmajestyinflictduepunishment
onhim!’
“Then,monks,KingYamaquestionsthatman,examineshim,andaddresses
himconcerningthefirstdivinemessenger:‘Didn’tyoueversee,mygoodman,
thefirstdivinemessengerappearingamonghumankind?’
“Andhereplies:‘No,Lord,Ididnotseehim.’
“Then King Yama says to him: ‘But, my good man, didn’t you ever see a
womanoraman,eighty,ninety,orahundredyearsold,frail,bentlikearoof
bracket,crooked,leaningonastick,shakilygoingalong,ailing,youthandvigor
gone, with broken teeth, with gray and scanty hair or bald, wrinkled, with
blotchedlimbs?’
“Andthemanreplies:‘Yes,Lord,Ihaveseenthis.’
“ThenKingYamasaystohim:‘Mygoodman,didn’titeveroccurtoyou,an
intelligentandmatureperson,“Itooamsubjecttooldageandcannotescapeit.
Letmenowdonobledeedsbybody,speech,andmind”?’
“‘No,Lord,Icouldnotdoit.Iwasnegligent.’
“ThenKingYamasays:‘Throughnegligence,mygoodman,youhavefailed
todonobledeedsbybody,speech,andmind.Well,youwillbetreatedasbefits
your negligence. That evil action of yours was not done by mother or father,
brothers, sisters, friends or companions, nor by relatives, devas, ascetics, or
brahmins. But you alone have done that evil deed, and you will have to
experiencethefruit.’
“When,monks,KingYamahasquestioned,examined,andaddressedhimthus
concerning the first divine messenger, he again questions, examines, and
addressesthemanaboutthesecondone,saying:‘Didn’tyoueversee,mygood
man,theseconddivinemessengerappearingamonghumankind?’
“‘No,Lord,Ididnotseehim.’
“‘But,mygoodman,didn’tyoueverseeawomanoramanwhowassickand
inpain,seriouslyill,lyinginhisownfilth,havingtobeliftedupbysomeand
puttobedbyothers?’
“‘Yes,Lord,Ihaveseenthis.’
“‘Mygoodman,didn’titeveroccurtoyou,anintelligentandmatureperson,
“Itooamsubjecttoillnessandcannotescapeit.Letmenowdonobledeedsby
body,speech,andmind”?’
“‘No,Lord,Icouldnotdoit.Iwasnegligent.’
“‘Throughnegligence,mygood man,youhave failedtodo nobledeedsby
body,speech,andmind.Well,youwillbetreatedasbefitsyournegligence.That
evilactionofyourswasnotdonebymotherorfather,brothers,sisters,friendsor
companions,norbyrelatives,devas,ascetics,orbrahmins.Butyoualonehave
donethatevildeed,andyouwillhavetoexperiencethefruit.’
“When,monks,KingYamahasquestioned,examined,andaddressedhimthus
concerning the second divine messenger, he again questions, examines, and
addressesthemanaboutthe thirdone,saying:‘Didn’tyoueversee,mygood
man,thethirddivinemessengerappearingamonghumankind?’
“‘No,Lord,Ididnotseehim.’
“‘But,mygoodman,didn’tyoueverseeawomanoramanone,two,orthree
daysdead,thecorpseswollen,discolored,andfestering?’
“‘Yes,Lord,Ihaveseenthis.’
“‘Then,mygoodman,didn’titeveroccurtoyou,anintelligentandmature
person,“Itooamsubjecttodeathandcannotescapeit.Letmenowdonoble
deedsbybody,speech,andmind”?’
“‘No,Lord,Icouldnotdoit.Iwasnegligent.’
“‘Throughnegligence,mygood man,youhave failedtodo nobledeedsby
body,speech,andmind.Well,youwillbetreatedasbefitsyournegligence.That
evilactionofyourswasnotdonebymotherorfather,brothers,sisters,friendsor
companions,norbyrelatives,devas,ascetics,orbrahmins.Butyoualonehave
donethatevildeed,andyouwillhavetoexperiencethefruit.’”
(fromAN3:35;I138–40)
2.THETRIBULATIONSOFUNREFLECTIVELIVING
(1)TheDartofPainfulFeeling
“Monks, when the uninstructed worldling experiences a painful feeling, he
sorrows, grieves, and laments; he weeps beating his breast and becomes
distraught.Hefeelstwofeelings—abodilyoneandamentalone.Supposethey
weretostrikeamanwithadart,andthenstrikehimimmediatelyafterwardwith
aseconddart,sothatthemanwouldfeelafeelingcausedbytwodarts.Sotoo,
when the uninstructed worldling experiences a painful feeling, he feels two
feelings—abodilyoneandamentalone.
“Whileexperiencingthatsamepainfulfeeling,heharborsaversiontowardit.
When he harbors aversion toward painful feeling, the underlying tendency to
aversion toward painful feeling lies behind this.
5
While experiencing painful
feeling, he seeks delight in sensual pleasure. For what reason? Because the
uninstructedworldlingdoesnotknowofanyescapefrompainfulfeelingother
thansensualpleasure.
6
Whenheseeksdelightinsensualpleasure,theunderlying
tendencytolustforpleasantfeelingliesbehindthis.Hedoesnotunderstandasit
reallyistheoriginandthepassingaway,thegratification,thedanger,andthe
escapeinthecaseofthesefeelings.
7
Whenhedoesnotunderstandthesethings,
the underlying tendency to ignorance in regard to neither-painful-nor-pleasant
feelingliesbehindthis.
“Ifhefeelsapleasantfeeling,hefeelsitattached.Ifhefeelsapainfulfeeling,
hefeelsitattached.Ifhefeelsaneither-painful-nor-pleasantfeeling,hefeelsit
attached. This, monks, is called an uninstructed worldling who is attached to
birth,aging,anddeath;whoisattachedtosorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,
anddespair;whoisattachedtosuffering,Isay.
“Monks,whentheinstructednoblediscipleexperiencesapainfulfeeling,he
does not sorrow, grieve, or lament; he does not weep beating his breast and
become distraught.
8
He feels one feeling—a bodily one, not a mental one.
Supposethey wereto strike a man witha dart,but they would not strikehim
immediatelyafterwardwithaseconddart,sothatthemanwouldfeelafeeling
causedbyonedartonly.Sotoo,whentheinstructednoblediscipleexperiencesa
painfulfeeling,hefeelsonefeeling—abodilyone,andnotamentalone.
“Whileexperiencingthatsamepainfulfeeling,heharborsnoaversiontoward
it.Sinceheharborsnoaversiontowardpainfulfeeling,theunderlyingtendency
toaversiontowardpainfulfeelingdoesnotliebehindthis.Whileexperiencing
painfulfeeling,hedoesnotseekdelightinsensualpleasure.Forwhatreason?
Becausetheinstructednoblediscipleknowsofanescapefrompainfulfeeling
otherthansensualpleasure.Sincehedoesnotseekdelightinsensualpleasure,
theunderlyingtendencytolustforpleasantfeelingdoesnotliebehindthis.He
understandsasitreallyistheoriginandthepassingaway,thegratification,the
danger,andtheescapeinthecaseofthesefeelings.Sinceheunderstandsthese
things, the underlying tendency to ignorance in regard to neither-painful-nor-
pleasantfeelingdoesnotliebehindthis.
“Ifhefeelsapleasantfeeling,hefeelsitdetached.Ifhefeelsapainfulfeeling,
hefeelsitdetached.Ifhefeelsaneither-painful-nor-pleasantfeeling,hefeelsit
detached. This, monks, is called a noble disciple who is detached from birth,
aging,anddeath;whoisdetachedfromsorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,and
despair;whoisdetachedfromsuffering,Isay.
“This, monks, is the distinction, the disparity, the difference between the
instructednoblediscipleandtheuninstructedworldling.”
(SN36:6;IV207–10)
(2)TheVicissitudesofLife
“Theseeightworldlyconditions,monks,keeptheworldturningaround,andthe
worldturnsaroundtheseeightworldlyconditions.Whateight?Gainandloss,
fameanddisrepute,praiseandblame,pleasureandpain.
“Theseeightworldlyconditions,monks,areencounteredbyanuninstructed
worldling,andtheyarealsoencounteredbyaninstructednobledisciple.What
nowisthedistinction,thedisparity,thedifferencebetweenaninstructednoble
discipleandanuninstructedworldling?”
“Venerablesir,ourknowledgeofthesethingshasitsrootsintheBlessedOne;
ithastheBlessedOneasguideandresort.Itwouldbegood,venerablesir,ifthe
BlessedOnewouldclarifythemeaningofthatstatement.Havinghearditfrom
him,themonkswillbearitinmind.”
“Listenthen,monks,andattendcarefully.Ishallspeak.”
“Yes,venerablesir,”themonksreplied.TheBlessedOnethenspokethus:
“When an uninstructed worldling, monks, comes upon gain, he does not
reflectonitthus:‘Thisgainthathascometomeisimpermanent,boundupwith
suffering,subjecttochange.’Hedoesnotknowitasitreallyis.Andwhenhe
comesuponloss,fameanddisrepute,praiseandblame,hedoesnotreflecton
them thus: ‘All these are impermanent, bound up with suffering, subject to
change.’Hedoesnotknowthemastheyreallyare.Withsuchaperson,gainand
loss, fame and disrepute, praise and blame, pleasure and pain keep his mind
engrossed. When gain comes he is elated and when he meets with loss he is
dejected.Whenfamecomesheiselatedandwhenhemeetswithdisreputeheis
dejected.Whenpraisecomesheiselatedandwhenhemeetswithblameheis
dejected.When he experiences pleasure he is elated and when he experiences
painheisdejected.Beingthusinvolvedinlikesanddislikes,hewillnotbefreed
from birth, aging, and death, from sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and
despair;hewillnotbefreedfromsuffering,Isay.
“But,monks,whenaninstructednobledisciplecomesupongain,hereflects
on it thus: ‘This gain that has come to me is impermanent, bound up with
suffering,subjecttochange.’Andsohewillreflectwhenlossandsoforthcome
upon him. He understands all these things as they really are, and they do not
engrosshismind.Thushewillnotbeelatedbygainanddejectedbyloss;elated
by fame and dejected by disrepute; elated by praise and dejected by blame;
elatedbypleasureanddejectedbypain.Havingthusgivenuplikesanddislikes,
he will be freed from birth, aging, and death, from sorrow, lamentation, pain,
dejection,anddespair;hewillbefreedfromsuffering,Isay.
“This, monks, is the distinction, the disparity, the difference between an
instructednoblediscipleandanuninstructedworldling.”
(AN8:6;IV157–59)
(3)AnxietyDuetoChange
“Monks,Iwill teach youagitationthrough clingingandnon-agitationthrough
nonclinging.
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Listenandattendcarefully.Ishallspeak.”
“Yes,venerablesir,”thosemonksreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
“And how, monks, is there agitation through clinging? Here, monks, the
uninstructedworldling,whoisnotaseerofthenobleonesandisunskilledand
undisciplined in their Dhamma, who is not a seer of superior persons and is
unskilled and undisciplined in their Dhamma, regards form as self, or self as
possessingform,orformasinself,orselfasinform.
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Thatformofhischanges
andalters.Withthechangeandalterationofform,hisconsciousnessbecomes
preoccupied with the change of form. Agitation and a constellation of mental
statesbornofpreoccupationwiththechangeofformremainobsessinghismind.
Because his mind is obsessed, he is frightened, distressed, and anxious, and
throughclinginghebecomesagitated.
“Heregardsfeelingasself...perceptionasself...volitionalformationsasself
...consciousnessasself,orselfaspossessingconsciousness,orconsciousnessas
inself,orselfasinconsciousness.Thatconsciousnessofhischangesandalters.
With the change and alteration of consciousness, his consciousness becomes
preoccupiedwiththechangeofconsciousness.Agitationandaconstellationof
mental states born of preoccupation with the change of consciousness remain
obsessinghismind.Becausehismindisobsessed,heisfrightened,distressed,
andanxious,andthroughclinginghebecomesagitated.
“Itisinsuchaway,monks,thatthereisagitationthroughclinging.
“Andhow,monks,istherenon-agitationthroughnonclinging?Here,monks,
theinstructednobledisciple,whoisaseerofthenobleonesandisskilledand
disciplinedintheirDhamma,whoisaseerofsuperiorpersonsandisskilledand
disciplinedintheirDhamma,doesnotregardformasself,orselfaspossessing
form,orformasinself,orselfasinform.
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Thatformofhischangesandalters.
Despitethechangeandalterationof form, hisconsciousnessdoesnot become
preoccupiedwiththechangeofform.Noagitationandconstellationofmental
statesbornofpreoccupationwiththechangeofformremainobsessinghismind.
Becausehis mindis notobsessed, heis not frightened, distressed,or anxious,
andthroughnonclinginghedoesnotbecomeagitated.
“He does not regard feeling as self ... perception as self ... volitional
formationsasself...consciousnessasself,orselfaspossessingconsciousness,
orconsciousnessasinself,orselfasinconsciousness.Thatconsciousnessofhis
changes and alters. Despite the change and alteration of consciousness, his
consciousnessdoesnotbecomepreoccupiedwiththechangeofconsciousness.
Noagitationandconstellationofmentalstates born ofpreoccupationwiththe
change of consciousness remain obsessing his mind. Because his mind is not
obsessed,heisnotfrightened,distressed,oranxious,andthroughnonclinginghe
doesnotbecomeagitated.
“Itisinsuchaway,monks,thatthereisnon-agitationthroughnonclinging.”
(SN22:7;III15–18)
3.AWORLDINTURMOIL
(1)TheOriginofConflict
ThebrahminĀrāmadaṇḍaapproachedtheVenerableMahākaccāna,
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exchanged
friendly greetings with him, and asked him: “Why is it, Master Kaccāna, that
khattiyasfightwith khattiyas,brahmins withbrahmins,and householderswith
householders?”
“It is, brahmin, because of attachment to sensual pleasures, adherence to
sensualpleasures,fixationonsensualpleasures,addictiontosensualpleasures,
obsession with sensual pleasures, holding firmly to sensual pleasures that
khattiyasfightwith khattiyas,brahmins withbrahmins,and householderswith
householders.”
“Whyisit,MasterKaccāna,thatasceticsfightwithascetics?”
“Itis,brahmin,becauseofattachmenttoviews,adherencetoviews,fixation
onviews,addictiontoviews,obsessionwithviews,holdingfirmlytoviewsthat
asceticsfightwithascetics.”
(AN2:iv,6,abridged;I66)
(2)WhyDoBeingsLiveinHate?
2.1. Sakka, ruler of the devas,
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asked the Blessed One: “Beings wish to live
withouthate,harming,hostility,orenmity;theywishtoliveinpeace.Yetthey
liveinhate,harmingoneanother,hostile,andasenemies.Bywhatfettersare
theybound,sir,thattheyliveinsuchaway?”
[The Blessed One said:] “Ruler of the devas, it is the bonds of envy and
niggardlinessthatbindbeingssothat,althoughtheywishtolivewithouthate,
hostility, or enmity, and to live in peace, yet they live in hate, harming one
another,hostile,andasenemies.”
ThiswastheBlessedOne’sreply,andSakka,delighted,exclaimed:“Soitis,
BlessedOne!Soitis,FortunateOne!ThroughtheBlessedOne’sanswerIhave
overcome my doubt and gotten rid of uncertainty.” 2.2. Then Sakka, having
expressedhisappreciation,askedanotherquestion:“But,sir,whatgivesriseto
envy and niggardliness, what is their origin, how are they born, how do they
arise?Whenwhatispresentdotheyarise,andwhenwhatisabsentdotheynot
arise?”
“Envyandniggardliness,rulerofthedevas,arisefromlikinganddisliking;
this is their origin, this is how they are born, how they arise. When these are
present,theyarise,whentheseareabsent,theydonotarise.”
“But,sir,whatgivesrisetolikinganddisliking…?”—“Theyarise,rulerofthe
devas,fromdesire.…”—“Andwhatgivesrisetodesire…?”—“Itarises,rulerof
thedevas,fromthinking.Whenthemindthinksaboutsomething,desirearises;
whenthemindthinksofnothing,desiredoesnotarise.”
“But,sir,whatgivesrisetothinking…?”
“Thinking, ruler of the devas, arises from elaborated perceptions and
notions.
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Whenelaboratedperceptionsandnotionsarepresent,thinkingarises.
Whenelaboratedperceptionsandnotionsareabsent,thinkingdoesnotarise.”
(fromDN21:SakkapañhaSutta;II276–77)
(3)TheDarkChainofCausation
9.“Thus,Ānanda,independenceuponfeelingthereiscraving;independence
upon craving there is pursuit; in dependence upon pursuit there is gain; in
dependenceupongainthereisdecision-making;independenceupondecision-
making there is desire and lust; in dependence upon desire and lust there is
attachment; in dependence upon attachment there is possessiveness; in
dependence upon possessiveness there is niggardliness; in dependence upon
niggardlinessthereisdefensiveness;andbecauseofdefensiveness,variousevil
unwholesomethingsoriginate—the takingup ofclubs andweapons, conflicts,
quarrels,anddisputes,insults,slander,andfalsehood.”
15
(fromDN15:MahānidānaSutta;II58)
(4)TheRootsofViolenceandOppression
“Greed,hatred,anddelusionofeverykindareunwholesome.
16
Whateveraction
agreedy,hating,anddeludedpersonheapsup—bydeeds,words,orthoughts—
that too is unwholesome. Whatever suffering such a person, overpowered by
greed,hatred,anddelusion,histhoughtscontrolledbythem,inflictsunderfalse
pretextsuponanother—bykilling,imprisonment,confiscationofproperty,false
accusations,orexpulsion—beingpromptedinthisbythethought,‘Ihavepower
andIwantpower,’allthisisunwholesometoo.”
(fromAN3:69;I201–2)
4.WITHOUTDISCOVERABLEBEGINNING
(1)GrassandSticks
The Blessed One said this: “Monks, this saṃsāra is without discoverable
beginning.
17
Afirstpointisnotdiscernedofbeingsroamingandwanderingon
hinderedbyignoranceandfetteredbycraving.Suppose,monks,amanwould
cutupwhatevergrass,sticks,branches,andfoliagethereareinthisJambudīpa
18
andcollectthemtogetherintoasingleheap.Havingdoneso,hewouldputthem
down,sayingforeachone:‘Thisismymother,thismymothersmother.’The
sequenceofthatman’smothersandgrandmotherswouldnotcometoanend,yet
thegrass,sticks,branches,andfoliageinthisJambudīpawouldbeusedupand
exhausted. For what reason? Because, monks, this saṃsāra is without
discoverable beginning. A first point is not discerned of beings roaming and
wandering on hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving. For such a long
time,monks,youhaveexperiencedsuffering,anguish,anddisaster,andswelled
thecemetery.Itisenoughtobecomedisenchantedwithallformations,enoughto
becomedispassionatetowardthem,enoughtobeliberatedfromthem.”
(SN15:1;II178)
(2)BallsofClay
“Monks, this saṃsāra is without discoverable beginning. A first point is not
discerned of beings roaming and wandering on hindered by ignorance and
fettered by craving. Suppose, monks, a man would reduce this great earth to
ballsofclaythesizeofjujubekernelsandputthemdown,saying[foreachone]:
‘Thisismyfather,thismyfathersfather.’Thesequenceofthatman’sfathers
andgrandfatherswouldnotcometoanend,yetthisgreatearthwouldbeusedup
and exhausted. For what reason? Because, monks, this saṃsāra is without
discoverable beginning. A first point is not discerned of beings roaming and
wandering on hindered by ignorance and fettered by craving. For such a long
time,monks,youhaveexperiencedsuffering,anguish,anddisaster,andswelled
thecemetery.Itisenoughtobecomedisenchantedwithallformations,enoughto
becomedispassionatetowardthem,enoughtobeliberatedfromthem.”
(SN15:2;II179)
(3)TheMountain
AcertainmonkapproachedtheBlessedOne,paidhomagetohim,satdownto
oneside,andsaidtohim:“Venerablesir,howlongisaneon?”
19
“Aneonislong,monk.Itisnoteasytocountitandsayitissomanyyears,or
somanyhundredsofyears,orsomanythousandsofyears,orsomanyhundreds
ofthousandsofyears.”
“Thenisitpossibletogiveasimile,venerablesir?”
“It is possible, monk,” the Blessed One said. “Suppose, monk, there was a
greatstonemountainayojanalong,ayojanawide,andayojanahigh,without
holesorcrevices,onesolidmassofrock.
20
Attheendofeveryhundredyearsa
manwouldstrokeitoncewithapieceoffinecloth.Thatgreatstonemountain
might by this effort be worn away and eliminated but the eon would still not
havecometoanend.Solongisaneon,monk.Andofeonsofsuchlength,we
have wandered through so many eons, so many hundreds of eons, so many
thousands of eons, so many hundreds of thousands of eons. For what reason?
Because,monk,thissaṃsāraiswithoutdiscoverablebeginning….Itisenough
tobeliberatedfromthem.”
(SN15:5;II181–82)
(4)TheRiverGanges
At Rājagaha, in the Bamboo Grove, the Squirrel Sanctuary,a certain brahmin
approachedtheBlessedOneandexchangedgreetingswithhim.Whentheyhad
concluded their greetings and cordial talk, he sat down to one side and asked
him:“MasterGotama,howmanyeonshaveelapsedandgoneby?”
“Brahmin,manyeonshaveelapsedandgoneby.Itisnoteasytocountthem
and say they are so many eons, or so many hundreds of eons, or so many
thousandsofeons,orsomanyhundredsofthousandsofeons.”
“Butisitpossibletogiveasimile,MasterGotama?”
“Itispossible,brahmin,”theBlessedOnesaid.“Imagine,brahmin,thegrains
ofsandbetweenthepointwheretheriverGangesoriginatesandthepointwhere
itentersthegreatocean:itisnoteasytocounttheseandsaytherearesomany
grainsofsand,orsomanyhundredsofgrains,orsomanythousandsofgrains,
orsomanyhundredsofthousandsofgrains.Brahmin,theeonsthathaveelapsed
andgonebyareevenmorenumerousthanthat.Itisnoteasytocountthemand
say that they are so many eons, or so many hundreds of eons, or so many
thousandsofeons,orsomanyhundredsofthousandsofeons.Forwhatreason?
Because, brahmin, this saṃsāra is without discoverable beginning…. It is
enoughtobeliberatedfromthem.”
(SN15:8;II183–84)
(5)DogonaLeash
“Monks, this saṃsāra is without discoverable beginning. A first point is not
discerned of beings roaming and wandering on hindered by ignorance and
fetteredbycraving.
“Therecomesatime,monks,whenthegreatoceandriesupandevaporates
andnolongerexists,butstill,Isay,thereisnomakinganendofsufferingfor
thosebeingsroamingandwanderingonhinderedbyignoranceandfetteredby
craving.
“Therecomesatime,monks,whenSineru,thekingofmountains,burnsup
andperishesandnolongerexists,butstill,Isay,thereisnomakinganendof
sufferingforthosebeingsroamingandwanderingonhinderedbyignoranceand
fetteredbycraving.
“Therecomesatime,monks,whenthegreatearthburnsupandperishesand
nolongerexists,butstill,Isay,thereisnomakinganendofsufferingforthose
beings roaming and wandering on hindered by ignorance and fettered by
craving.
“Suppose, monks, a dog tied up on a leash was bound to a strong post or
pillar: it would just keep on running and revolving around that same post or
pillar.Sotoo,theuninstructedworldlingregardsformasself...feelingasself...
perceptionasself...volitionalformationsasself…consciousnessasself….He
just keeps running and revolving around form, around feeling, around
perception,aroundvolitionalformations,aroundconsciousness.Ashekeepson
runningandrevolvingaroundthem,heisnotfreedfromform,notfreedfrom
feeling, not freed from perception, not freed from volitional formations, not
freedfromconsciousness.Heisnotfreedfrombirth,aging,anddeath;notfreed
fromsorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair;notfreedfromsuffering,
Isay.”
(SN22:99;II149–50)
II.TheBringerofLight
INTRODUCTION
ThepictureofthehumanconditionthatemergesfromtheNikāyas,assketched
intheprecedingchapter,isthebackgroundagainstwhichthemanifestationof
the Buddha in the world acquires a heightened and deepened significance.
Unless we view the Buddha against this multi-dimensional background,
extendingfromthemostpersonalandindividualexigenciesofthepresenttothe
vast, impersonal rhythms of cosmic time, any interpretation we may arrive at
abouthisroleisboundtobeincomplete.Farfromcapturingtheviewpointofthe
compilersoftheNikāyas,ourinterpretationwillbeinfluencedasmuchbyour
own presuppositions as by theirs, perhaps even more so. Depending on our
biases and predispositions, we may choose to regard the Buddha as a liberal
ethicalreformerofadegenerateBrahmanism,asagreatsecularhumanist,asa
radicalempiricist,asanexistentialpsychologist,astheproponentofasweeping
agnosticism,orastheprecursorofanyotherintellectualfashionthatmeetsour
fancy. The Buddha who stares back at us from the texts will be too much a
reflectionofourselves,toolittleanimageoftheEnlightenedOne.
Perhaps in interpreting a body of ancient religious literature we can never
fully avoid inserting ourselves and our own values into the subject we are
interpreting. However, though we maynever achieve perfect transparency, we
canlimittheimpactofpersonalbiasupontheprocessofinterpretationbygiving
the words of the texts due respect. When we pay this act of homage to the
Nikāyas, when we take seriously their own account of the background to the
Buddha’smanifestationintheworld,wewillseethattheyascribetohismission
nothingshortofacosmicscope.Againstthebackgroundofauniversewithno
conceivableboundsintime,auniversewithinwhichlivingbeingsenvelopedin
the darkness of ignorance wander along bound to the suffering of old age,
sickness, and death, the Buddha arrives as the “torchbearer of humankind”
(ukkādhāromanussānaṃ) bringing the light of wisdom.
1
In thewords of Text
II,1,hisarisingintheworldis“themanifestationofgreatvision,ofgreatlight,
ofgreatradiance.”Havingdiscoveredforhimselftheperfectpeaceofliberation,
hekindlesforusthelightofknowledge,whichrevealsboththetruthsthatwe
mustseeforourselvesandthepathofpracticethatculminatesinthisliberating
vision.
AccordingtoBuddhisttradition,theBuddhaGotamaisnotmerelyoneunique
individual who puts in an unprecedented appearance on the stage of human
historyandthenbowsoutforever.Heis,rather,thefulfillmentofaprimordial
archetype, the most recent member of a cosmic “dynasty” of Buddhas
constitutedbynumberlessPerfectlyEnlightenedOnesofthepastandsustained
by Perfectly Enlightened Ones continuing indefinitely onward into the future.
Early Buddhism, even in the archaic root texts of the Nikāyas, already
recognizesapluralityofBuddhaswhoallconformtocertainfixedpatternsof
behavior,thebroadoutlinesofwhicharedescribedintheopeningsectionsofthe
MahāpadānaSutta(DīghaNikāya14,notrepresentedinthepresentanthology).
Theword“Tathāgata,”whichthetextsuseasanepithetforaBuddha,pointsto
thisfulfillmentofaprimordialarchetype.Thewordmeansboth“theonewho
hascomethus”(tath̄̄gata),thatis,whohascomeintoourmidstinthesameway
thattheBuddhasofthepasthavecome;and“theonewhohasgonethus”(tath̄
gata),thatis,whohasgonetotheultimatepeace,Nibbāna,inthesamewaythat
theBuddhasofthepasthavegone.
Though the Nikāyas stipulate that in any given world system, at any given
time,onlyonePerfectlyEnlightenedBuddhacanarise,thearisingofBuddhasis
intrinsictothecosmicprocess.Likeameteoragainsttheblacknessofthenight
sky,fromtimetotimeaBuddhawillappearagainstthebackdropofboundless
spaceand time,lighting upthe spiritualfirmament of the world,shedding the
brilliance of his wisdom upon those capable of seeing the truths that he
illuminates. The being who is to become a Buddha is called, in Pāli, a
bodhisatta,awordbetterknownintheSanskritform,bodhisattva.Accordingto
commonBuddhisttradition,abodhisattaisonewhoundertakesalongcourseof
spiritual development consciously motivated by the aspiration to attain future
Buddhahood.
2
Inspired and sustained by great compassion for living beings
miredinthesufferingofbirthanddeath,abodhisattafulfills,overmanyeonsof
cosmic time, the difficult course needed to fully master the requisites for
supreme enlightenment. When all these requisites are complete, he attains
BuddhahoodinordertoestablishtheDhammaintheworld.ABuddhadiscovers
thelong-lostpathtoliberation,the“ancientpath”traveledbytheBuddhasofthe
pastthatculminatesintheboundlessfreedomofNibbāna.Havingfoundthepath
andtraveledittoitsend,hethenteachesitinallitsfullnesstohumanitysothat
manyotherscanenterthewaytofinalliberation.
This, however, does not exhaust the function of a Buddha. A Buddha
understands and teaches not only the path leading to the supreme state of
ultimateliberation,theperfectblissofNibbāna,butalsothepathsleadingtothe
varioustypesofwholesomemundanehappinesstowhichhumanbeingsaspire.
ABuddhaproclaimsbothapathofmundaneenhancementthatenablessentient
beingstoplantwholesomerootsproductiveofhappiness,peace,andsecurityin
theworldlydimensionsoftheirlives,andapathofworld-transcendencetoguide
sentientbeingstoNibbāna.Hisroleisthusmuchwiderthananexclusivefocus
on the transcendent aspects of his teaching might suggest. He is not merely a
mentor of ascetics and contemplatives, not merely a teacher of meditation
techniques and philosophical insights, but a guide to the Dhamma in its full
rangeanddepth:onewhoreveals,proclaims,andestablishesalltheprinciples
integraltocorrectunderstandingandwholesomeconduct,whethermundaneor
transcendental.TextII,1 highlightsthis wide-rangingaltruistic dimensionof a
Buddha’scareerwhenitpraisestheBuddhaastheonepersonwhoarisesinthe
world“forthewelfareofthemultitude,forthehappinessofthemultitude,outof
compassion for the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and
humans.”
The Nikāyas offer two perspectives on the Buddha as a person, and to do
justice to the texts it is important to hold these two perspectives in balance,
withoutlettingonecancelouttheother.AcorrectviewoftheBuddhacanonly
arisefromthemergingofthesetwoperspectives,justasthecorrectviewofan
object can arise only when the perspectives presented by our two eyes are
merged in the brain into a single image. One perspective, the one highlighted
most often in modernist presentations of Buddhism, shows the Buddha as a
humanbeingwho, like otherhumanbeings, hadtostruggle withthecommon
frailtiesofhumannaturetoarriveatthestateofanEnlightenedOne.Afterhis
enlightenmentattheageofthirty-five,hewalkedamongusforforty-fiveyears
asawiseandcompassionatehumanteacher,sharinghisrealizationwithothers
andensuringthathisteachingswouldremainintheworldlongafterhisdeath.
This is the side of the Buddha’s nature that figures most prominently in the
Nikāyas. Since it corresponds closely with contemporary agnostic attitudes
towardtheidealsofreligiousfaith,ithasanimmediateappealtothosenurtured
bymodernmodesofthought.
TheotheraspectoftheBuddha’spersonislikelytoseemstrangetous,butit
loomslargeinBuddhisttraditionandservesasthebedrockforpopularBuddhist
devotion. Though secondary in the Nikāyas, it occasionally surfaces so
conspicuously that it cannot be ignored, despite the efforts of Buddhist
moderniststo downplayits significanceor rationalizeits intrusions.From this
perspective,theBuddhaisseenasonewhohadalreadymadepreparationsfor
hissupremeattainmentovercountlesspastlivesandwasdestinedfrombirthto
fulfillthemissionofaworldteacher.TextII,2isanexampleofhowtheBuddha
isviewedfromthisperspective.Here,itissaid,thefutureBuddhadescendsfully
consciousfromtheTusitaheavenintohismotherswomb;hisconceptionand
birthareaccompaniedbywonders;deitiesworshipthenewborninfant;andas
soon as he is born he walks seven steps and announces his future destiny.
Obviously, for the compilers of such a sutta as this, the Buddha was already
destinedtoattainBuddhahoodevenpriortohisconceptionandthushisstruggle
forenlightenmentwasabattlewhoseoutcomewasalreadypredetermined.The
final paragraph of the sutta, however, ironically hearkens back to the realistic
pictureoftheBuddha.WhattheBuddhahimselfconsiderstobetrulywondrous
arenotthemiraclesaccompanyinghisconceptionandbirth,buthismindfulness
andclearcomprehensioninthemidstoffeelings,thoughts,andperceptions.
The three texts in section 3 are biographical accounts consistent with this
naturalistic point of view. They offer us a portrait of the Buddha stark in its
realism, bare in its naturalism, striking in its ability to convey deep
psychological insights with minimal descriptive technique. In Text II,3(1) we
readabouthisrenunciation,histrainingundertwofamousmeditationteachers,
hisdisillusionmentwiththeirteachings,hissolitarystruggle,andhistriumphant
realizationoftheDeathless.TextII,3(2)fillsinthegapsoftheabovenarrative
with a detailed account of the bodhisatta’s practice of self-mortification,
strangelymissingfromthepreviousdiscourse.Thistextalsogivesustheclassic
descriptionof theenlightenment experienceas involvingthe attainmentof the
four jhānas, states of deep meditation, followed by the three vijjās or higher
types of knowledge: the knowledge of the recollection of past lives, the
knowledgeofthepassingawayandrebirthofbeings,andtheknowledgeofthe
destructionofthetaints.Whilethistextmayconveytheimpressionthatthelast
knowledge broke upon the Buddha’s mind as a sudden and spontaneous
intuition,TextII,3(3)correctsthisimpressionwithanaccountoftheBodhisatta
ontheeveofhisenlightenmentreflectingdeeplyuponthesufferingofoldage
anddeath.Hethenmethodicallytracesthissufferingbacktoitsconditionsbya
process that involves, at each step, “careful attention” (yoniso manasikāra)
leadingto“abreakthroughbywisdom”(paññāyaabhisamaya).Thisprocessof
investigation culminates in the discovery of dependent origination, which
therebybecomesthephilosophicalcornerstoneofhisteaching.
It is important to emphasize that, as presented here and elsewhere in the
Nikāyas(seebelow,pp.353-59),dependentoriginationdoesnotsignifyajoyous
celebrationofthe interconnectednessof all thingsbut aprecise articulationof
theconditionalpatternindependenceuponwhichsufferingarisesandceases.In
thesametext,theBuddhadeclaresthathediscoveredthepathtoenlightenment
onlywhenhefoundthewaytobringdependentoriginationtoanend.Itwasthus
the realization of the cessation of dependent origination, and not merely the
discoveryofitsoriginationaspect,thatprecipitatedtheBuddha’senlightenment.
The simile of the ancient city, introduced later in the discourse, illustrates the
point that the Buddha’s enlightenment was not a unique event but the
rediscoveryofthesame“ancientpath”thathadbeenfollowedbytheBuddhasof
thepast.
Text II,4 resumes the narrative of Text II,3(1), which I had divided by
splicinginthetwoalternativeversionsofthebodhisatta’squestforthepathto
enlightenment.WenowrejointheBuddhaimmediatelyafterhisenlightenment
asheponderstheweightyquestionwhethertoattempttosharehisrealization
withtheworld.Justatthispoint,inthemidstofatextthathassofarappearedso
convincinglynaturalistic,adeitynamedBrahmāSahampatidescendsfromthe
heavenstopleadwiththeBuddhatowanderforthandteachtheDhammaforthe
benefitofthose“withlittledustintheireyes.”Shouldthisscenebeinterpreted
literally or as a symbolic enactment of an internal drama taking place in the
Buddha’smind?Itishardtogiveadefinitiveanswertothisquestion;perhaps
thescenecouldbeunderstoodasoccurringatbothlevelsatonce.Inanyevent,
Brahmā’sappearanceatthispointmarksashiftfromtherealismthatcolorsthe
earlierpartofthesuttabacktowardthemythical-symbolicmode.Thetransition
againunderscoresthecosmicsignificanceoftheBuddha’senlightenmentandhis
futuremissionasateacher.
Brahmā’s appeal eventually prevails and the Buddha agrees to teach. He
choosesasthefirstrecipientsofhisteachingthefiveasceticswhohadattended
onhimduringhisyearsofasceticpractices.Thenarrativeculminatesinabrief
statementthattheBuddhainstructedtheminsuchawaythattheyallattainedthe
deathlessNibbānaforthemselves.However,itgivesnoindicationofthespecific
teaching that the Buddha imparted to them when he first met them after his
enlightenment.ThatteachingistheFirstDiscourseitself,knownas“TheSetting
inMotionoftheWheeloftheDhamma.”
This sutta is included here as TextII,5. When the sutta opens, the Buddha
announcestothefiveasceticsthathehasdiscovered“themiddleway,”whichhe
identifies with the Noble Eightfold Path. In the light of the preceding
biographical account, we can understand why the Buddha should begin his
discourseinthisway.Thefiveasceticshadinitiallyrefusedtoacknowledgethe
Buddha’sclaimtoenlightenmentandspurnedhimasonewhohadbetrayedthe
highercallingtoreverttoalifeofluxury.Thushefirsthadtoassurethemthat,
farfromrevertingtoalifeofself-indulgence,hehaddiscoveredanewapproach
to the timeless quest for enlightenment. This new approach, he told them,
remainsfaithfultotherenunciationofsensualpleasuresyeteschewstormenting
thebodyaspointlessandunproductive.Hethenexplainedtothemthetruepath
to liberation, the Noble Eightfold Path, which avoids the two extremes and
therebygivesrisetothelightofwisdomandculminatesinthedestructionofall
bondage,Nibbāna.
Oncehehascleareduptheirmisunderstanding,theBuddhathenproclaimsthe
truths he had realized on the night of his enlightenment. These are the Four
Noble Truths. Not only does he enunciate each truth and briefly define its
meaning,buthedescribeseachtruthfromthreeperspectives.Theseconstitute
the three “turnings of the wheel of the Dhamma” referred to later in the
discourse. With respect to each truth, the first turning is the wisdom that
illuminatesthe particular nature of that noble truth. The second turning is the
understandingthateachnobletruthimposesaparticulartasktobeaccomplished.
Thusthe first nobletruth, thetruth ofsuffering,is to be fully understood; the
secondtruth,thetruthofsuffering’soriginorcraving,istobeabandoned; the
thirdtruth,thetruthofthecessationofsuffering,istoberealized;andthefourth
truth, the truth of the path, is to be developed. The third turning is the
understandingthatthefourfunctionsregardingtheFourNobleTruthshavebeen
completed: the truth of sufferinghas been fully understood; craving has been
abandoned;thecessationofsufferinghasbeenrealized;andthepathhasbeen
fullydeveloped.ItwasonlywhenheunderstoodtheFourNobleTruthsinthese
three turnings and twelve modes, he says, that he could claim that he had
attainedunsurpassedperfectenlightenment.
TheDhammacakkappavattanaSuttaillustratesonceagaintheblendingofthe
twostylisticmodesIreferredtoearlier.Thediscourseproceedsalmostentirely
intherealistic-naturalisticmodeuntilweapproachthe end.WhentheBuddha
completeshissermon,thecosmicsignificanceoftheeventisilluminatedbya
passageshowinghowthedeitiesineachsuccessivecelestialrealmapplaudthe
discourseandshoutthegoodnewsuptothedeitiesinthenexthigherrealm.At
the same time, the entire world system quakes and shakes, and a great light
surpassingtheradianceofthegodsappearsintheworld.Then,attheveryend,
wereturnfromthisgloriousscenebacktotheprosaichumanrealm,tobehold
theBuddha briefly congratulating the asceticKoṇḍañña for gaining “the dust-
free, stainless vision of the Dhamma.” In one split-second, the Lamp of the
Doctrine has passed from master to disciple, to begin its journey throughout
Indiaandacrosstheworld.
II.THEBRINGEROFLIGHT
1.ONEPERSON
“Monks, there is one person who arises in the world for the welfare of the
multitude,forthehappinessofthemultitude,outofcompassionfortheworld,
for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and humans. Who is that one
person?ItistheTathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne.Thisis
thatoneperson.
“Monks, there is one person arising in the world who is unique, without a
peer, withoutcounterpart, incomparable,unequalled, matchless,unrivalled, the
best of humans.Who is that one person? It is the Tathāgata, theArahant, the
PerfectlyEnlightenedOne.Thisisthatoneperson.
“Monks,themanifestationofonepersonisthemanifestationofgreatvision,
of great light, of great radiance; it is the manifestation of the six things
unsurpassed;therealizationofthefouranalyticalknowledges;thepenetrationof
thevariouselements,ofthediversityofelements;itistherealizationofthefruit
ofknowledgeandliberation;therealizationofthefruitsofstream-entry,once-
returning, nonreturning, and arahantship.
3
Who is that one person? It is the
Tathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne.Thisisthatoneperson.”
(AN1:xiii,1,5,6;I22–23)
2.THEBUDDHA’SCONCEPTIONANDBIRTH
1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatSāvatthīin
Jeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’sPark.
2.Nowanumberofmonksweresittingintheassemblyhall,wheretheyhad
met together on returning from their almsround, after their meal, when this
discussion arose among them: “It is wonderful, friends, it is marvelous, how
mightyandpowerfulistheTathāgata!ForheisabletoknowabouttheBuddhas
ofthepast—whoattainedfinalNibbāna,cut[thetangleof]proliferation,broke
thecycle,endedtheround,andsurmountedallsuffering—thatforthoseBlessed
Ones their birth was thus, their names were thus, their clans were thus, their
moral discipline was thus, their qualities [of concentration] were thus, their
wisdom was thus, their meditative dwellings were thus, their liberation was
thus.”
When this was said, the Venerable Ānanda told the monks: “Friends,
Tathāgatas are wonderful and have wonderful qualities. Tathāgatas are
marvelousandhavemarvelousqualities.”
4
However, their discussion was interrupted; for the Blessed One rose from
meditationwhenitwasevening,wenttotheassemblyhall,andsatdownona
seat made ready. Then he addressed the monks thus: “Monks, for what
discussionareyousittingtogetherherenow?Andwhatwasyourdiscussionthat
wasinterrupted?”
“Here,venerablesir,weweresittingintheassemblyhall,wherewehadmet
togetheronreturningfromouralmsround,afterourmeal,whenthisdiscussion
aroseamongus:‘Itiswonderful,friends,itismarvelous…theirliberationwas
thus.’ When this was said, venerable sir, the Venerable Ānanda said to us:
‘Friends,Tathāgatasarewonderfulandhavewonderfulqualities.Tathāgatasare
marvelousandhavemarvelousqualities.’Thiswasourdiscussion,venerablesir,
thatwasinterruptedwhentheBlessedOnearrived.”
Then the Blessed One addressed the Venerable Ānanda: “That being so,
Ānanda,explainmorefullytheTathāgata’swonderfulandmarvelousqualities.”
3.“Iheardandlearnedthis,venerablesir,fromtheBlessedOne’sownlips:
‘Mindful and clearly comprehending, Ānanda, the Bodhisatta appeared in the
Tusita heaven.’
5
That mindful and clearly comprehending the Bodhisatta
appearedintheTusitaheaven—thisIrememberasawonderfulandmarvelous
qualityoftheBlessedOne.
4.“IheardandlearnedthisfromtheBlessedOne’sownlips:‘Mindfuland
clearlycomprehendingtheBodhisattaremainedintheTusitaheaven.’ThistooI
rememberasawonderfulandmarvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.
5.“IheardandlearnedthisfromtheBlessedOne’sownlips:‘Forthewhole
of his lifespan the Bodhisatta remained in the Tusita heaven.’ This too I
rememberasawonderfulandmarvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.
6.“IheardandlearnedthisfromtheBlessedOne’sownlips:‘Mindfuland
clearlycomprehendingtheBodhisattapassedawayfromtheTusitaheavenand
descended into his mothers womb.’ This too I remember as a wonderful and
marvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.
7. “I heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: ‘When the
BodhisattapassedawayfromtheTusitaheavenanddescendedintohismothers
womb, an immeasurable great radiance surpassing the divine majesty of the
devasappearedintheworldwithitsdevas,Māra,andBrahmā,inthispopulation
withitsasceticsandbrahmins,withitsdevasandhumanbeings.Andevenin
thoseabysmalworldintervalsofvacancy,gloom,andutterdarkness,wherethe
moon and the sun, mighty and powerful as they are, cannot make their light
prevail,theretooanimmeasurablegreatradiancesurpassingthedivinemajesty
ofthedevasappeared.
6
Andthebeingsrebornthereperceivedeachotherbythat
light: “So indeed, there are also other beings reborn here.” And this ten-
thousand-fold world system shook, quaked, and trembled, and again an
immeasurablegreatradiancesurpassingthedivinemajestyofthedevasappeared
intheworld.’ThistooIrememberasawonderfulandmarvelousqualityofthe
BlessedOne.
8. “I heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: ‘When the
Bodhisattahad descended into his mothers womb, four young devas came to
guardhimatthefourquarterssothatnohumansornonhumansoranyoneatall
couldharmtheBodhisattaorhismother.’
7
ThistooIrememberasawonderful
andmarvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.
9. “I heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: ‘When the
Bodhisatta had descended into his mothers womb, she became intrinsically
virtuous, refraining from killing living beings, from taking what is not given,
from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from wines, liquors, and
intoxicants, the basis of negligence.’ This too I remember as a wonderful and
marvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.…
14.“IheardandlearnedthisfromtheBlessedOne’sownlips:‘Otherwomen
givebirthaftercarryingthechildinthewombfornineortenmonths,butnotso
the Bodhisatta’s mother. The Bodhisatta’s mother gave birth to him after
carrying him in her womb for exactly ten months.’ This too I remember as a
wonderfulandmarvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.
15.“IheardandlearnedthisfromtheBlessedOne’sownlips:‘Otherwomen
give birth seated or lying down, but not so the Bodhisatta’s mother. The
Bodhisatta’smother gave birth to himstanding up.’This too I rememberas a
wonderfulandmarvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.
16. “I heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: ‘When the
Bodhisattacameforthfromhismotherswomb,firstdevasreceivedhim,then
humanbeings.’ThistooIrememberasawonderfulandmarvelousqualityofthe
BlessedOne.
17. “I heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: ‘When the
Bodhisattacameforthfromhismotherswomb,hedidnottouchtheearth.The
fouryoungdevasreceivedhimandsethimbeforehismothersaying:“Rejoice,
Oqueen,asonofgreatpowerhasbeenborntoyou.”’ThistooIrememberasa
wonderfulandmarvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.
18. “I heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: ‘When the
Bodhisatta came forth from his mothers womb, he came forth unsullied,
unsmeared by water, humors, blood, or any kind of impurity, clean and
unsullied.Supposetherewereagemplacedonfinecloth,thenthegemwould
notsmeartheclothorthecloththegem.Whyisthat?Becauseofthepurityof
both. So too when the Bodhisatta came forth … he came forth clean and
unsullied.’ This too I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the
BlessedOne.
19. “I heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: ‘When the
Bodhisattacameforthfromhismothers womb, twojetsofwaterappearedto
pourfromthesky,onecoolandonewarm,forbathingtheBodhisattaandhis
mother.’ This too I remember as a wonderful and marvelous quality of the
BlessedOne.
20.“IheardandlearnedthisfromtheBlessedOne’sownlips:‘Assoonasthe
Bodhisattawasborn,hestoodfirmlywithhisfeetontheground;thenhetook
sevenstepsfacingnorth,andwithawhiteparasolheldoverhim,hesurveyed
eachquarterandutteredthewordsoftheleaderoftheherd:“Iamthehighestin
theworld;Iamthebestintheworld;Iamtheforemostintheworld.Thisismy
lastbirth;nowthereisnorenewedexistenceforme.”’
8
ThistooIrememberasa
wonderfulandmarvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.
21. “I heard and learned this from the Blessed One’s own lips: ‘When the
Bodhisattacameforthfromhismotherswomb,animmeasurablegreatradiance
surpassingthedivinemajestyofthedevasappearedintheworldwithitsdevas,
Māra, and Brahmā, in this population with its ascetics and brahmins, with its
devasandhumanbeings.Andeveninthoseabysmalworldintervalsofvacancy,
gloom,andutterdarkness,wherethemoonandthesun,mightyandpowerfulas
they are, cannot make their light prevail—there too an immeasurable great
radiancesurpassingthedivinemajestyofthedevasappearedintheworld.And
thebeingsrebornthereperceivedeachotherbythatlight:“Soindeed,thereare
alsootherbeingsrebornhere.”Andthisten-thousand-foldworldsystemshook,
quaked,andtrembled,andtheretooanimmeasurablegreatradiancesurpassing
thedivinemajestyofthedevasappearedintheworld.’ThatwhentheBodhisatta
cameforthfromhismotherswomb,animmeasurablegreatradiancesurpassing
thedivinemajestyofthedevasappearedintheworld...thistooIrememberasa
wonderfulandmarvelousqualityoftheBlessedOne.”
22.“Thatbeingso,Ānanda,rememberthistooasawonderfulandmarvelous
qualityoftheTathāgata:Here,Ānanda,fortheTathāgatafeelingsareknownas
theyarise,astheyarepresent,astheydisappear;perceptionsareknownasthey
arise,astheyarepresent,astheydisappear;thoughtsareknownastheyarise,as
theyarepresent,astheydisappear.
9
Rememberthistoo,Ānanda,asawonderful
andmarvelousqualityoftheTathāgata.”
23.“Venerablesir,sincefortheBlessedOnefeelingsareknownastheyarise,
astheyarepresent,as theydisappear;perceptionsareknown as theyarise,as
theyarepresent,astheydisappear;thoughtsareknownastheyarise,astheyare
present,astheydisappear—thistooIrememberasawonderfulandmarvelous
qualityoftheBlessedOne.”
ThatiswhattheVenerableĀnandasaid.TheTeacherapproved.Themonks
weresatisfiedanddelightedintheVenerableĀnanda’swords.
(MN123:Acchariya-abbhūtaSutta,abridged;III118–20;122–24)
3.THEQUESTFORENLIGHTENMENT
(1)SeekingtheSupremeStateofSublimePeace
5.“Monks,therearethesetwokindsofsearch:thenoblesearchandtheignoble
search.Andwhatistheignoblesearch?Heresomeonebeinghimselfsubjectto
birthseekswhatisalsosubjecttobirth;beinghimselfsubjecttoaging,heseeks
whatisalsosubjecttoaging;beinghimselfsubjecttosickness,heseekswhatis
also subject to sickness; being himself subject to death, he seeks what is also
subjecttodeath;beinghimselfsubjecttosorrow,heseekswhatisalsosubjectto
sorrow; being himself subject to defilement, he seeks what is also subject to
defilement.
6–11. “And what may be said to be subject to birth, aging, sickness, and
death; to sorrow and defilement? Wife and children, men and women slaves,
goats and sheep, fowl and pigs, elephants, cattle, horses, and mares, gold and
silver: these acquisitions are subject to birth, aging, sickness, and death; to
sorrowanddefilement;andonewhoistiedtothesethings,infatuatedwiththem,
and utterly absorbed in them, being himself subject to birth ... to sorrow and
defilement,seekswhatitalsosubjecttobirth...tosorrowanddefilement.
10
12. “And what is the noble search? Here someone being himself subjectto
birth,havingunderstoodthedangerinwhatissubjecttobirth,seekstheunborn
supremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna;beinghimselfsubjecttoaging,having
understoodthedangerinwhatissubjecttoaging,heseekstheunagingsupreme
security from bondage, Nibbāna; being himself subject to sickness, having
understood the danger in what is subject to sickness, he seeks the unailing
supremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna;beinghimselfsubjecttodeath,having
understoodthedangerinwhatissubjecttodeath,heseeksthedeathlesssupreme
security from bondage, Nibbāna; being himself subject to sorrow, having
understood the danger in what is subject to sorrow, he seeks the sorrowless
supremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna;beinghimselfsubject to defilement,
having understood the danger in what is subject to defilement, he seeks the
undefiledsupremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna.Thisisthenoblesearch.
13.“Monks,beforemyenlightenment,whileIwasstillonlyanunenlightened
bodhisatta,Itoo,beingmyselfsubjecttobirth,soughtwhatwasalsosubjectto
birth;beingmyselfsubjecttoaging,sickness,death,sorrow,anddefilement,I
soughtwhatwasalsosubjecttoaging,sickness,death,sorrow,anddefilement.
ThenIconsideredthus:‘Why,beingmyselfsubjecttobirth,doIseekwhatis
also subject to birth? Why, being myself subject to aging, sickness, death,
sorrow,anddefilement,doIseekwhatisalsosubjecttoaging,sickness,death,
sorrow, and defilement? Suppose that, being myself subject to birth, having
understood the danger in what is subject to birth, I seek the unborn supreme
security from bondage, Nibbāna. Suppose that, being myself subject to aging,
sickness,death,sorrow,anddefilement,havingunderstoodthedangerinwhatis
subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defilement, I seek the unaging,
unailing, deathless, sorrowless, and undefiled supreme security from bondage,
Nibbāna.’
14. “Later, while still young, a black-haired young man endowed with the
blessing of youth, in the prime of life, though my mother and father wished
otherwiseandweptwithtearfulfaces,Ishavedoffmyhairandbeard,putonthe
ochrerobe,andwentforthfromthehomelifeintohomelessness.
15.“Havinggoneforth,monks,insearchofwhatiswholesome,seekingthe
supremestateofsublimepeace,IwenttoĀḷāraKālāmaandsaidtohim:‘Friend
Kālāma,IwanttoleadthespirituallifeinthisDhammaandDiscipline.’Āḷāra
Kālāmareplied:‘Thevenerableonemaystayhere.ThisDhammaissuchthata
wise man can soon enter upon and dwell in it, realizing for himself through
direct knowledge his own teachers doctrine.’ I soon quickly learned that
Dhamma.Asfarasmerelip-recitingandrehearsalofhisteachingwent,Icould
speak with knowledge and assurance, and I claimed, ‘I know and see’—and
therewereotherswhodidlikewise.
“Iconsidered:‘ItisnotthroughmerefaithalonethatĀḷāraKālāmadeclares:
“Byrealizingitformyselfwithdirectknowledge,Ienteruponanddwellinthis
Dhamma.”CertainlyĀḷāraKālāmadwellsknowingandseeingthisDhamma.’
ThenIwenttoĀḷāraKālāmaandaskedhim:‘FriendKālāma,inwhatwaydo
you declare that by realizing it for yourself with direct knowledge you enter
uponanddwellinthisDhamma?’Inreplyhedeclaredthebaseofnothingness.
11
“I considered: ‘Not only Āḷāra Kālāma has faith, energy, mindfulness,
concentration,andwisdom.Itoohavefaith,energy,mindfulness,concentration,
and wisdom. Suppose I endeavor to realize the Dhamma that Āḷāra Kālāma
declares he enters upon and dwells in by realizing it for himself with direct
knowledge?’
“IsoonquicklyentereduponanddwelledinthatDhammabyrealizingitfor
myself with direct knowledge. Then I went to Āḷāra Kālāma and asked him:
‘FriendKālāma,isitinthiswaythatyoudeclarethatyouenteruponanddwell
inthisDhammabyrealizingitforyourselfwithdirectknowledge?’—‘Thatis
theway,friend.’—‘Itisinthisway,friend,thatIalsoenteruponanddwellin
thisDhammabyrealizingitformyselfwithdirectknowledge.’—‘Itisagainfor
us, friend, it is a great gain for us that we have such a venerable one for our
fellow monk. So the Dhamma that I declare I enter upon and dwell in by
realizingitformyselfwithdirectknowledgeistheDhammathatyouenterupon
anddwellinbyrealizingitforyourselfwithdirectknowledge.AndtheDhamma
that you enter upon and dwell in by realizing it for yourself with direct
knowledgeistheDhammathatIdeclareIenteruponanddwellinbyrealizingit
formyselfwithdirectknowledge.SoyouknowtheDhammathatIknowandI
know the Dhamma that you know. As I am, so are you; as you are, so am I.
Come,friend,letusnowleadthiscommunitytogether.’
“ThusĀḷāra Kālāma,my teacher, placedme, his pupil, on anequal footing
with himself and awarded me the highest honor. But it occurred to me: ‘This
Dhammadoesnotleadtodisenchantment,todispassion,tocessation,topeace,
todirectknowledge,toenlightenment,toNibbāna,butonlytorebirthinthebase
ofnothingness.’
12
NotbeingsatisfiedwiththatDhamma,disappointedwithit,I
left.
16.“Stillinsearch,monks,ofwhatiswholesome,seekingthesupremestate
ofsublimepeace,IwenttoUddakaRāmaputtaandsaidtohim:‘Friend,Iwant
to lead the spiritual life in this Dhamma and Discipline.’ Uddaka Rāmaputta
replied:‘Thevenerableonemaystayhere.ThisDhammaissuchthatawiseman
cansoonenteruponanddwellinit,himselfrealizingthroughdirectknowledge
hisownteachersdoctrine.’IsoonquicklylearnedthatDhamma.Asfarasmere
lip-reciting and rehearsal of his teaching went, I could speak with knowledge
andassurance,andIclaimed,‘Iknowandsee’—andtherewereotherswhodid
likewise.
“Iconsidered:‘ItwasnotthroughmerefaithalonethatRāmadeclared:“By
realizing it for myself with direct knowledge, I enter upon and dwell in this
Dhamma.”CertainlyRāmadwelledknowingandseeingthisDhamma.’ThenI
went to Uddaka Rāmaputta and asked him: ‘Friend, in what way did Rāma
declarethat by realizing itfor himselfwith directknowledge heentered upon
anddwelledinthisDhamma?’InreplyUddakaRāmaputtadeclaredthebaseof
neither-perception-nor-nonperception.
13
“Iconsidered:‘NotonlyRāmahadfaith,energy,mindfulness,concentration,
andwisdom.Itoohavefaith,energy,mindfulness,concentration,andwisdom.
SupposeIendeavortorealizetheDhammathatRāmadeclaredheenteredupon
anddwelledinbyrealizingitforhimselfwithdirectknowledge.’
“IsoonquicklyentereduponanddwelledinthatDhammabyrealizingitfor
myselfwithdirectknowledge.ThenIwenttoUddakaRāmaputtaandaskedhim:
‘Friend,wasitinthiswaythatRāmadeclaredthatheentereduponanddwelled
inthisDhammabyrealizingitforhimselfwithdirectknowledge?’—‘Thatisthe
way,friend.’—‘Itisinthisway,friend,thatIalsoenteruponanddwellinthis
Dhammabyrealizingitformyselfwithdirectknowledge.’—‘Itisagainforus,
friend,itisagreatgainforusthatwehavesuchavenerableoneforourfellow
monk.SotheDhammathatRāmadeclaredheentereduponanddwelledinby
realizingitforhimselfwithdirectknowledgeistheDhammathatyouenterupon
anddwellinbyrealizingitforyourselfwithdirectknowledge.AndtheDhamma
that you enter upon and dwell in by realizing it for yourself with direct
knowledgeistheDhammathatRāmadeclaredheentereduponanddwelledin
byrealizingitforhimselfwithdirectknowledge.SoyouknowtheDhammathat
RāmaknewandRāmaknewtheDhammathatyouknow.AsRāmawas,soare
you;asyouare,sowasRāma.Come,friend,nowleadthiscommunity.’
“Thus Uddaka Rāmaputta,my fellow monk, placed me in the position of a
teacher and accorded me the highest honor. But it occurred to me: ‘This
Dhammadoesnotleadtodisenchantment,todispassion,tocessation,topeace,
todirectknowledge,toenlightenment,toNibbāna,butonlytorebirthinthebase
of neither-perception-nor-nonperception.  Not being satisfied with that
Dhamma,disappointedwithit,Ileft.
17.“Stillinsearch,monks,ofwhatiswholesome,seekingthesupremestate
of sublime peace, I wandered by stages through the Magadhan country until
eventuallyIarrivedatUruvelānearSenānigama.ThereIsawanagreeablepiece
of ground, a delightful grove with a clear-flowingriver with pleasant, smooth
banksandnearbyavillageforalmsresort.Iconsidered:‘Thisisanagreeable
piece of ground, this is a delightful grove with a clear-flowing river with
pleasant,smoothbanksandnearbyavillageforalmsresort.Thiswillservefor
the striving of a clansman intent on striving.’ And I sat down there thinking:
‘Thiswillserveforstriving.’
14
18.“Then,monks,beingmyselfsubjecttobirth,havingunderstoodthedanger
inwhatissubjecttobirth,seekingtheunbornsupremesecurityfrombondage,
Nibbāna,Iattainedtheunbornsupremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna;being
myself subject to aging, having understood the danger in what is subject to
aging,seekingtheunagingsupremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna,Iattained
theunagingsupremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna;beingmyselfsubjectto
sickness,havingunderstood thedanger inwhat issubjectto sickness,seeking
the unailing supreme security from bondage, Nibbāna, I attained the unailing
supremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna;beingmyselfsubjecttodeath,having
understoodthedangerinwhatissubjecttodeath,seekingthedeathlesssupreme
securityfrombondage,Nibbāna,Iattainedthedeathlesssupremesecurityfrom
bondage,Nibbāna;beingmyselfsubjecttosorrow,havingunderstoodthedanger
in what is subject to sorrow, seeking the sorrowless supreme security from
bondage, Nibbāna, I attained the sorrowless supreme security from bondage,
Nibbāna;being myself subject to defilement,having understood the danger in
what is subject to defilement, seeking the undefiled supreme security from
bondage, Nibbāna, I attained the undefiled supreme security from bondage,
Nibbāna.Theknowledgeandvisionaroseinme:‘Myliberationisunshakable.
Thisismylastbirth.Nowthereisnomorerenewedexistence.’”
(fromMN26:AriyapariyesanaSutta;I160–67)
(2)TheRealizationoftheThreeTrueKnowledges
11. [Saccaka asked the Blessed One:]
15
“Has there never arisen in Master
Gotamaafeelingsopleasantthatitcouldinvadehismindandremain?Hasthere
neverariseninMasterGotamaafeelingsopainfulthatitcouldinvadehismind
andremain?”
12. “Why not, Aggivessana? Here, Aggivessana, before my enlightenment,
whileIwasstillonlyanunenlightenedbodhisatta,Ithought:‘Householdlifeis
crowdedanddusty;lifegoneforthiswideopen.Itisnoteasy,whilelivingina
home,toleadtheholylifeutterlyperfectandpureasapolishedshell.SupposeI
shaveoffmyhairandbeard,putontheochrerobe,andgoforthfromthehome
lifeintohomelessness.’13–16.“Later,whilestillyoung,ablack-hairedyoung
manendowedwiththeblessingofyouth,intheprimeoflife...[asinTextII,3(1)
§§14–17]…AndIsatdowntherethinking:‘Thiswillserveforstriving.’
17. “Now these three similes occurred to me spontaneously, never heard
before.Supposetherewereawetsappypieceofwoodlyinginwater,andaman
camewithanupperfire-stick,thinking:‘Ishalllightafire,Ishallproduceheat.’
Whatdoyouthink,Aggivessana?Couldthemanlightafireandproduceheatby
takingtheupperfire-stickandrubbingitagainstthewetsappypieceofwood
lyinginthewater?”
“No,MasterGotama.Whynot?Becauseitisawetsappypieceofwood,and
it is lying in water. Eventually the man would reap only weariness and
disappointment.”
“Sotoo,Aggivessana,astothoseasceticsandbrahminswhostilldonotlive
bodilywithdrawn from sensual pleasures, and whose sensual desire,affection,
infatuation,thirst,andfeverforsensualpleasureshasnotbeenfullyabandoned
andsuppressedinternally,evenifthosegoodasceticsandbrahminsfeelpainful,
racking,piercingfeelingsduetoexertion,theyareincapableofknowledgeand
visionandsupremeenlightenment;andevenifthosegoodasceticsandbrahmins
donotfeelpainful,racking,piercingfeelingsduetoexertion,theyareincapable
ofknowledgeandvisionandsupremeenlightenment.Thiswasthefirstsimile
thatoccurredtomespontaneously,neverheardbefore.
18. “Again, Aggivessana, a second simile occurred to me spontaneously,
neverheardbefore.Supposetherewereawetsappypieceofwoodlyingondry
landfarfromwater,andamancamewithanupperfire-stick,thinking:‘Ishall
lightafire,Ishallproduceheat.’Whatdoyouthink,Aggivessana?Couldthe
manlightafireandproduceheatbytakingtheupperfire-stickandrubbingit
againstthewetsappypieceofwoodlyingondrylandfarfromwater?”
“No,MasterGotama.Whynot?Becauseitisawetsappypieceofwood,even
though it is lying on dry land far from water. Eventuallythe man would reap
onlywearinessanddisappointment.”
“So too, Aggivessana, as to those ascetics and brahmins who live bodily
withdrawn from sensual pleasures, but whose sensual desire, affection,
infatuation,thirst,andfeverforsensualpleasureshasnotbeenfullyabandoned
andsuppressedinternally,evenifthosegoodasceticsandbrahminsfeelpainful,
racking,piercingfeelingsduetoexertion,theyareincapableofknowledgeand
visionandsupremeenlightenment;andevenifthosegoodasceticsandbrahmins
donotfeelpainful,racking,piercingfeelingsduetoexertion,theyareincapable
ofknowledgeandvisionandsupremeenlightenment.Thiswasthesecondsimile
thatoccurredtomespontaneously,neverheardbefore.
19.“Again,Aggivessana,athirdsimileoccurredtomespontaneously,never
heardbefore.Supposetherewereadrysaplesspieceofwoodlyingondryland
farfromwater,andamancamewithanupperfire-stick,thinking:‘Ishalllighta
fire,Ishallproduceheat.’Whatdoyouthink,Aggivessana?Couldthemanlight
afireandproduceheatbyrubbingitagainstthedrysaplesspieceofwoodlying
ondrylandfarfromwater?”
“Yes,MasterGotama.Whyso?Becauseitisadrysaplesspieceofwood,and
itislyingondrylandfarfromwater.”
“So too, Aggivessana, as to those ascetics and brahmins who live bodily
withdrawn from sensual pleasures, and whose sensual desire, affection,
infatuation,thirst,andfeverforsensualpleasureshasbeenfullyabandonedand
suppressed internally, even if those good ascetics and brahmins feel painful,
racking, piercing feelings due to exertion, they are capable of knowledge and
visionandsupremeenlightenment;andevenifthosegoodasceticsandbrahmins
donotfeelpainful,racking,piercingfeelingsduetoexertion,theyarecapableof
knowledgeandvisionandsupremeenlightenment.
16
This wasthe third simile
that occurred to me spontaneously, never heard before. These are the three
similesthatoccurredtomespontaneously,neverheardbefore.
20. “I thought: ‘Suppose, with my teeth clenched and my tongue pressed
against the roof of my mouth, I beat down, constrain, and crush mind with
mind.’So,withmyteethclenchedandmytonguepressedagainsttheroofofmy
mouth,Ibeatdown,constrained,andcrushedmindwithmind.WhileIdidso,
sweatranfrommyarmpits.Justasastrongmanmightseizeaweakermanby
theheadorshouldersandbeathimdown,constrainhim,andcrushhim,sotoo,
withmyteethclenchedandmytonguepressedagainsttheroofofmymouth,I
beatdown, constrained, and crushedmind with mind, andsweat ran from my
armpits. But although tireless energy was aroused in me and unremitting
mindfulnesswasestablished,mybodywasoverwroughtandstrainedbecauseI
wasexhaustedbythepainfulstriving.Butsuchpainfulfeelingthataroseinme
didnotinvademymindandremain.
17
21.“Ithought:‘SupposeIpracticethebreathlessmeditation.’SoIstoppedthe
in-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouthandnose.WhileIdidso,therewas
a loud sound of winds coming out from my ear holes. Just as there is a loud
soundwhenasmith’sbellowsareblown,sotoo,whileIstoppedthein-breaths
and out-breaths through my nose and ears, there was a loud sound of winds
comingoutfrommyearholes.Butalthoughtirelessenergywasarousedinme
and unremitting mindfulness was established, my body was overwrought and
strainedbecauseIwasexhaustedbythepainfulstriving.Butsuchpainfulfeeling
thataroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.
22. “I thought: ‘Suppose I practice further the breathless meditation.’ So I
stoppedthein-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouth,nose,andears.While
I did so, violent winds cut through my head. Just as if a strong man were
pressingagainstmyheadwiththetipofasharpsword,sotoo,whileIstopped
thein-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouth,nose,andears,violentwinds
cut through my head. But although tireless energy was aroused in me and
unremitting mindfulness was established, my body was overwrought and
strainedbecauseIwasexhaustedbythepainfulstriving.Butsuchpainfulfeeling
thataroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.
23. “I thought: ‘Suppose I practice further the breathless meditation.’ So I
stoppedthein-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouth,nose,andears.While
I did so, there were violent pains in my head. Just as if a strong man were
tighteningatoughleatherstraparoundmyheadasaheadband,sotoo,whileI
stoppedthein-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouth,nose,andears,there
wereviolentpainsinmyhead.Butalthoughtirelessenergywasarousedinme
and unremitting mindfulness was established, my body was overwrought and
strainedbecauseIwasexhaustedbythepainfulstriving.Butsuchpainfulfeeling
thataroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.
24. “I thought: ‘Suppose I practice further the breathless meditation.’ So I
stoppedthein-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouth,nose,andears.While
I did so, violent winds carved up my belly. Just as if a skilled butcher or his
apprenticeweretocarveupanox’sbellywithasharpbutchersknife,sotoo,
whileIstoppedthein-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouth,nose,andears,
violentwindscarvedupmybelly.Butalthoughtirelessenergywasarousedin
meandunremittingmindfulnesswasestablished,mybodywasoverwroughtand
strainedbecauseIwasexhaustedbythepainfulstriving.Butsuchpainfulfeeling
thataroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.
25. “I thought: ‘Suppose I practice further the breathless meditation.’ So I
stoppedthein-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouth,nose,andears.While
Ididso,therewasaviolentburninginmybody.Justasiftwostrongmenwere
toseizeaweakermanbybotharmsandroasthimoverapitofhotcoals,sotoo,
whileIstoppedthein-breathsandout-breathsthroughmymouth,nose,andears,
there was a violent burning in my body. But although tireless energy was
aroused in me and unremitting mindfulness was established, my body was
overwroughtandstrainedbecauseIwasexhaustedbythepainfulstriving.But
suchpainfulfeelingthataroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.
26. “Now when deities saw me, some said: ‘The ascetic Gotama is dead.’
Other deities said: ‘The ascetic Gotama is not dead, he is dying.’ And other
deitiessaid:‘TheasceticGotamaisneitherdeadnordying;heisanarahant,for
suchisthewayarahantsdwell.’
27. “I thought: ‘Suppose I practice entirely cutting off food.’ Then deities
cametomeandsaid:‘Goodsir,donotpracticeentirelycuttingofffood.Ifyou
doso, weshall infuse heavenlyfood intothe pores of your skinand this will
sustainyou.’Iconsidered:‘IfIclaimtobecompletelyfastingwhilethesedeities
infuseheavenlyfoodintotheporesofmyskinandthissustainsme,thenIshall
belying.’SoIdismissedthosedeities,saying:‘Thereisnoneed.’
28.“Ithought:‘SupposeItakeverylittlefood,ahandfuleachtime,whether
ofbeansouporlentilsouporvetchsouporpeasoup.’SoItookverylittlefood,
ahandfuleachtime,whetherofbeansouporlentilsouporvetchsouporpea
soup.WhileIdidso,mybodyreachedastateofextremeemaciation.Becauseof
eating so little my limbs became like the jointed segments of vine stems or
bamboostems. Because of eatingso little my backside became like a camel’s
hoof. Because of eating so little the projections on my spine stood forth like
cordedbeads.Becauseofeatingsolittlemyribsjuttedoutasgauntasthecrazy
raftersofanoldrooflessbarn.Becauseofeatingsolittlethegleamofmyeyes
sankfardownintheirsockets,lookinglikethegleamofwaterthathassunkfar
downinadeepwell.Becauseofeatingsolittlemyscalpshriveledandwithered
as a green bitter gourd shrivels and withers in the wind and sun. Because of
eatingsolittlemybellyskinadheredtomybackbone;thusifItouchedmybelly
skinIencounteredmybackboneandifItouchedmybackboneIencounteredmy
bellyskin.Becauseofeatingsolittle,ifIdefecatedorurinated,Ifelloveronmy
facethere.Becauseofeatingsolittle,ifItriedtoeasemybodybyrubbingmy
limbswithmyhands,thehair,rottedatitsroots,fellfrommybodyasIrubbed.
29. “Now when people saw me, some said: ‘The ascetic Gotama is black.’
Otherpeoplesaid:‘TheasceticGotamaisnotblack;heisbrown.’Otherpeople
said:‘TheasceticGotamaisneitherblacknorbrown;heisgolden-skinned.’So
muchhadtheclear,brightcolorofmyskindeterioratedthrougheatingsolittle.
30.“Ithought:‘Whateverasceticsorbrahminsinthepasthaveexperienced
painful, racking, piercing feelings due to exertion, this is the utmost; there is
none beyond this. And whatever ascetics and brahmins in the future will
experiencepainful,racking,piercingfeelingsduetoexertion,thisistheutmost;
there is none beyond this. And whatever ascetics and brahmins at present
experiencepainful,racking,piercingfeelingsduetoexertion,thisistheutmost;
thereisnonebeyondthis.ButbythisrackingpracticeofausteritiesIhavenot
attained any superhuman distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the
nobleones.Couldtherebeanotherpathtoenlightenment?’
31. “I considered: ‘I recall that when my father the Sakyan was occupied,
whileIwassittinginthecoolshadeofarose-appletree,secludedfromsensual
pleasures,secludedfromunwholesomestates,Ienteredanddwelledinthefirst
jhāna, which is accompanied by thought and examination, with rapture and
happinessbornofseclusion.
18
Couldthisbethepathtoenlightenment?’Then,
following on that memory, came the realization: ‘This is indeed the path to
enlightenment.’
32.“Ithought:‘WhyamIafraidofthathappinessthathasnothingtodowith
sensualpleasuresandunwholesomestates?’Ithought:‘Iamnotafraidofthat
happiness that has nothing to do with sensual pleasures and unwholesome
states.’
33. “I considered: ‘It is not easy to attain that happiness with a body so
excessively emaciated. Suppose I ate some solid food—some boiled rice and
porridge.’ And I ate some solid food—someboiled rice and porridge. Now at
that time five monks were waiting upon me, thinking: ‘If our ascetic Gotama
achievessomehigherstate,hewillinformus.’ButwhenIatetheboiledriceand
porridge, the five monks were disgusted and left me, thinking: ‘The ascetic
Gotama now lives luxuriously; he has given up his striving and reverted to
luxury.’
34. “Now when I had eaten solid food and regained my strength, then
secludedfrom sensual pleasures,secluded fromunwholesome states,I entered
and dwelled in the first jhāna, which is accompanied by thought and
examination, with rapture and happiness born of seclusion. But such pleasant
feelingthataroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.
19
35.“Withthesubsidingofthoughtandexamination,Ienteredanddwelledin
the second jhāna, which has internal confidence and unification of mind, is
without thought and examination, and has rapture and happiness born of
concentration.Butsuchpleasantfeelingthataroseinmedidnotinvademymind
andremain.
36. “With the fading away as well of rapture, I dwelled equanimous, and
mindful and clearly comprehending, I experienced happiness with the body; I
enteredanddwelledinthethirdjhānaofwhichthenobleonesdeclare:‘Heis
equanimous, mindful, one who dwells happily.’ But such pleasant feeling that
aroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.
37.“Withtheabandoningofpleasureandpain,andwiththepreviouspassing
awayofjoyanddispleasure,Ienteredanddwelledinthefourthjhāna,whichis
neither painful nor pleasant and includes the purification of mindfulness by
equanimity.Butsuchpleasantfeelingthataroseinmedidnotinvademymind
andremain.
38.“Whenmymindwasthusconcentrated,purified,bright,unblemished,rid
of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to imperturbability, I
directed it to knowledge of the recollection of past lives. I recollected my
manifoldpastlives,thatis,one birth,twobirths,threebirths, four births,five
births,tenbirths,twentybirths,thirtybirths,fortybirths,fiftybirths,ahundred
births, a thousand births, a hundred thousand births, many eons of world-
contraction,manyeonsofworld-expansion,manyeonsofworld-contractionand
expansion:‘ThereIwassonamed,ofsuchaclan,withsuchanappearance,such
wasmynutriment,suchmyexperienceofpleasureandpain,suchmylifespan;
and passing away from there, I was reborn elsewhere; and there tooI was so
named,ofsuchaclan,withsuchanappearance,suchwasmynutriment,such
myexperienceofpleasureandpain,suchmylifespan;andpassingawayfrom
there,Iwasrebornhere.’ThuswiththeiraspectsandparticularsIrecollectedmy
manifoldpastlives.
39.“Thiswasthefirsttrueknowledgeattainedbymeinthefirstwatchofthe
night.Ignorancewasbanishedandtrueknowledgearose,darknesswasbanished
andlightarose,ashappensinonewhodwellsdiligent,ardent,andresolute.But
suchpleasantfeelingthataroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.
40.“Whenmymindwasthusconcentrated,purified,bright,unblemished,rid
of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to imperturbability, I
directed it to knowledge of the passing away and rebirth of beings. With the
divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, I saw beings passing
awayandbeingreborn,inferiorandsuperior,beautifulandugly,fortunateand
unfortunate,andIunderstoodhowbeingsfareonaccordingtotheiractionsthus:
‘Thesebeingswhobehavedwronglybybody,speech,andmind,whoreviledthe
nobleones,heldwrongview,andundertookactionsbasedonwrongview,with
thebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,havebeenreborninastateofmisery,ina
baddestination,inthelowerworld,inhell;butthesebeingswhobehavedwell
bybody,speech,andmind,whodidnotrevilethenobleones,whoheldright
view,andundertookactionbasedonrightview,withthebreakupofthebody,
afterdeath,havebeenreborninagooddestination,inaheavenlyworld.’Thus
with the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, I saw beings
passing away and being reborn, inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly,
fortunate and unfortunate, and I understood how beings fare on according to
theiractions.
41.“Thiswasthesecondtrueknowledgeattainedbymeinthemiddlewatch
ofthe night. Ignorancewas banished andtrue knowledge arose,darkness was
banished and light arose, as happens in one who dwells diligent, ardent, and
resolute.Butsuchpleasantfeelingthataroseinmedidnotinvademymindand
remain.
42.“Whenmymindwasthusconcentrated,purified,bright,unblemished,rid
of imperfection, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to imperturbability, I
directed it to knowledge of the destruction of the taints. I directly knew as it
actuallyis:‘Thisissuffering.Thisistheoriginofsuffering.Thisisthecessation
of suffering. This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering.’ I directly
knewasitactuallyis:‘Thesearethetaints.Thisistheoriginofthetaints.Thisis
thecessationofthetaints.Thisisthewayleadingtothecessationofthetaints.’
43. “When I knew and saw thus, my mind was liberated from the taint of
sensualdesire,fromthetaintofexistence,andfromthetaintofignorance.When
it was liberated, there came the knowledge: ‘It is liberated. I directly knew:
‘Birth is destroyed, the spiritual life has been lived, what had to be done has
beendone,thereisnomorecomingbacktoanystateofbeing.’
44.“Thiswasthethirdtrueknowledgeattainedbymeinthelastwatchofthe
night.Ignorancewasbanishedandtrueknowledgearose,darknesswasbanished
andlightarose,ashappensinonewhodwellsdiligent,ardent,andresolute.But
suchpleasantfeelingthataroseinmedidnotinvademymindandremain.”
(fromMN36:MahāsaccakaSutta;I240–49)
(3)TheAncientCity
“Monks,beforemyenlightenment,whileIwasstillabodhisatta,notyetfully
enlightened,itoccurredtome:‘Alas,thisworldhasfallenintotrouble,inthatit
isborn,ages,anddies,itpassesawayandisreborn,yetitdoesnotunderstand
the escape from this suffering headed by aging-and-death. When now will an
escapebediscernedfromthissufferingheadedbyaging-and-death?’
“Then, monks, it occurred to me: ‘When what exists does aging-and-death
come to be? By what is aging-and-death conditioned?’ Then, monks, through
carefulattention,theretookplaceinmeabreakthroughbywisdom:‘Whenthere
isbirth,aging-and-deathcomestobe;aging-and-deathhasbirthasitscondition.’
“Then,monks,itoccurredtome:‘Whenwhatexistsdoesbirthcometobe?…
existence?… clinging?… craving?… feeling?… contact? … the six sense
bases?… name-and-form? By what is name-and-form conditioned?’ Then,
monks, through careful attention, there took place in me a breakthrough by
wisdom:‘Whenthereisconsciousness,name-and-formcomestobe;name-and-
formhasconsciousnessasitscondition.’
“Then,monks,itoccurredtome:‘Whenwhatexistsdoesconsciousnesscome
to be? By what is consciousness conditioned?’ Then, monks, through careful
attention, there took place in me a breakthrough by wisdom: ‘When there is
name-and-form,consciousnesscomestobe;consciousnesshasname-and-form
asitscondition.’
20
“Then,monks,itoccurredtome:‘Thisconsciousnessturns
back;itdoesnotgofurtherthanname-and-form.Itistothisextentthatonemay
be born and age and die, pass away and be reborn, that is, when there is
consciousness with name-and-form as its condition, and name-and-form with
consciousnessasitscondition.
21
Withname-and-formascondition,thesixsense
bases;withthesixsensebasesascondition,contact….Suchistheoriginofthis
wholemassofsuffering.’“‘Origination,origination’—thus,monks,inregardto
thingsunheardbeforetherearoseinmevision,knowledge,wisdom,penetration,
andlight.
“Then,monks,itoccurredtome:‘Whenwhatdoesnotexistdoesaging-and-
deathnotcometobe?Withthecessationofwhatdoesthecessationofaging-
and-deathcomeabout?’Then,monks,throughcarefulattention,theretookplace
inmeabreakthroughbywisdom:‘Whenthereisnobirth,aging-and-deathdoes
notcometobe;withthecessationofbirthcomescessationofaging-and-death.’
“Itoccurredtome:‘Whenwhatdoesnotexistdoesbirthnotcometobe?…
existence?… clinging?… craving?… feeling?… contact?… the six sense
bases?… name-and-form? With the cessation of what does the cessation of
name-and-formcomeabout?’Then,monks,throughcarefulattention,theretook
placeinmeabreakthroughbywisdom:‘Whenthereisnoconsciousness,name-
and-form does not come to be; with the cessation of consciousness comes
cessationofname-and-form.’
“Itoccurredtome:‘Whenwhatdoesnotexistdoesconsciousnessnotcometo
be?Withthecessationofwhatdoesthecessationofconsciousnesscomeabout?’
Then,monks,throughcarefulattention,theretookplaceinmeabreakthrough
bywisdom:‘Whenthereisnoname-and-form,consciousnessdoesnotcometo
be;withthecessationofname-and-formcomescessationofconsciousness.’
“Then, monks, it occurred to me: ‘I have discovered this path to
enlightenment,thatis,withthecessationofname-and-formcomescessationof
consciousness; with the cessation of consciousness comes cessation of name-
and-form;withthecessationofname-and-form,cessationofthesixsensebases;
with the cessation of the six sense bases, cessation of contact…. Such is the
cessationofthiswholemassofsuffering.’
22
“‘Cessation,cessation’—thus,monks,inregardtothingsunheardbeforethere
aroseinmevision,knowledge,wisdom,penetration,andlight.
“Suppose, monks, a man wandering through a forest would see an ancient
path,anancientroadtraveleduponbypeopleinthepast.Hewouldfollowitand
wouldseeanancientcity,anancientcapitalthathadbeeninhabitedbypeoplein
thepast,with parks, groves,ponds, and ramparts,adelightful place.Thenthe
manwouldinformthekingoraroyalminister:‘Sire,knowthatwhilewandering
throughtheforestIsawanancientpath,anancientroadtraveleduponbypeople
inthepast.Ifolloweditandsawanancientcity,anancientcapitalthathadbeen
inhabited by people in the past, with parks, groves, ponds, and ramparts, a
delightful place. Renovate that city, sire!’ Then the king or the royal minister
wouldrenovatethecity,andsometimelaterthatcitywouldbecomesuccessful
and prosperous, well populated, filled with people, attained to growth and
expansion.
“So too, monks, I saw the ancient path, the ancient road traveled by the
Perfectly Enlightened Ones of the past. And what is that ancient path, that
ancient road? It is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right
intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right
mindfulness, right concentration. I followed that path and by doing so I have
directlyknownaging-and-death,itsorigin,itscessation,andthewayleadingto
itscessation.Ihavedirectlyknownbirth...existence...clinging...craving...
feeling...contact...thesixsensebases...name-and-form...consciousness ...
volitionalformations,theirorigin,theircessation,andthewayleadingtotheir
cessation.
23
Havingdirectlyknownthem,Ihaveexplainedthemtothemonks,
thenuns,themalelayfollowers,andthefemalelayfollowers.Thisspirituallife,
monks,hasbecome successful andprosperous, extended, popular,widespread,
wellproclaimedamongdevasandhumans.”
(SN12:65;II104–7)
4.THEDECISIONTOTEACH
19.“Iconsidered:‘ThisDhammathatIhaveattainedisprofound,hardtosee
andhardtounderstand,peacefulandsublime,unattainablebymerereasoning,
subtle,tobeexperiencedbythewise.Butthispopulationdelightsinattachment,
takes delight in attachment, rejoices in attachment.
24
It is hard for such a
population to see this truth, namely, specific conditionality, dependent
origination.Anditishardtoseethistruth,namely,thestillingofallformations,
the relinquishing of all acquisitions, the destruction of craving, dispassion,
cessation, Nibbāna.
25
If I were to teach the Dhamma, others would not
understandme,andthatwouldbewearyingandtroublesomeforme.’Thereupon
therecametomespontaneouslythesestanzasneverheardbefore:
EnoughwithteachingtheDhamma
ThatevenIfoundhardtoreach;
Foritwillneverbeperceived
Bythosewholiveinlustandhate.
Thosedyedinlust,wrappedindarkness
WillneverdiscernthisabstruseDhamma,
Whichgoesagainsttheworldlystream,
Subtle,deep,anddifficulttosee.
“Consideringthus, my mind inclined to inaction rather than to teaching the
Dhamma.
26
20.“Then,monks,theBrahmāSahampatiknewwithhismindthethoughtin
mymindandheconsidered:‘Theworldwillbelost,theworldwillperish,since
themindoftheTathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne,inclines
toinactionratherthantoteachingtheDhamma.’Then,justasquicklyasastrong
man might extend his flexed arm or flex his extended arm, the Brahmā
Sahampativanishedinthebrahmaworldandappearedbeforeme.Hearranged
hisupperrobeononeshoulder,andextendinghishandsinreverentialsalutation
towardme,said:‘Venerablesir,lettheBlessedOneteachtheDhamma,letthe
SublimeOneteachtheDhamma.Therearebeingswithlittledustintheireyes
who are perishing through not hearing the Dhamma. There will be those who
willunderstandtheDhamma.’TheBrahmāSahampatispokethus,andthenhe
saidfurther:
‘InMagadhatherehaveappearedtillnow
Impureteachingsdevisedbythosestillstained.
‘OpenthedoorstotheDeathless!Letthemhear
TheDhammathatthestainlessonehasfound.
‘Justasonewhostandsonamountainpeak
Canseebelowthepeopleallaround,
So,Owiseone,all-seeingsage,
AscendthepalaceoftheDhamma.
Letthesorrowlessonesurveythishumanbreed,
Engulfedinsorrow,overcomebybirthandoldage.
‘Arise,victorioushero,caravanleader,
Debtlessone,andwanderintheworld.
LettheBlessedOneteachtheDhamma,
Therewillbethosewhowillunderstand.’
21. “Then I listened to the Brahmā’s pleading, and out of compassion for
beingsIsurveyedtheworldwiththeeyeofaBuddha.Surveyingtheworldwith
theeyeofaBuddha,Isawbeingswithlittledustintheireyesandwithmuch
dustintheireyes,withkeenfacultiesandwithdullfaculties,withgoodqualities
andwithbadqualities,easytoteachandhardtoteach,andsomewhodwelled
seeingfearandblameintheotherworld.Justasinapondofblueorredorwhite
lotuses,somelotusesthatarebornandgrowinthewaterthriveimmersedinthe
waterwithoutrisingoutofit,andsomeotherlotusesthatarebornandgrowin
thewaterrestonthewaterssurface,andsomeotherlotusesthatarebornand
growinthewaterriseoutofthewaterandstandclear,unwettedbyit;sotoo,
surveyingtheworldwiththeeyeofaBuddha,Isawbeingswithlittledustin
theireyes andwith muchdust intheir eyes, with keen facultiesand with dull
faculties,withgoodqualitiesandwithbadqualities,easytoteachandhardto
teach,andsomewhodwelledseeingfearandblameintheotherworld.ThenI
repliedtotheBrahmāSahampatiinstanzas:
‘OpenforthemarethedoorstotheDeathless,
Letthosewithearsnowshowtheirfaith.
Thinkingitwouldbetroublesome,OBrahmā,
IdidnotspeaktheDhammasubtleandsublime.’
“ThentheBrahmāSahampatithought:‘TheBlessedOnehasconsentedtomy
requestthatheteachtheDhamma.’Andafterpayinghomagetome,keepingme
ontheright,hethereupondepartedatonce.
22.“Iconsideredthus:‘TowhomshouldIfirstteachtheDhamma?Whowill
understand this Dhamma quickly?’ It then occurred to me: ‘Āḷāra Kālāma is
wise,intelligent,anddiscerning;hehaslonghadlittledustinhiseyes.SupposeI
taughttheDhammafirsttoĀḷāraKālāma.Hewillunderstanditquickly.’Then
deitiesapproachedmeandsaid:‘Venerablesir,ĀḷāraKālāmadiedsevendays
ago.’Andtheknowledgeandvisionaroseinme:‘ĀḷāraKālāmadiedsevendays
ago.’ I thought: ‘Āḷāra Kālāma’s loss is a great one. If he had heard this
Dhamma,hewouldhaveunderstooditquickly.’
23.“Iconsideredthus:‘TowhomshouldIfirstteachtheDhamma?Whowill
understandthisDhammaquickly?’Itthenoccurredtome:‘UddakaRāmaputtais
wise,intelligent,anddiscerning;hehaslonghadlittledustinhiseyes.SupposeI
taughttheDhammafirsttoUddakaRāmaputta.Hewillunderstanditquickly.’
Then deities approached me and said: ‘Venerable sir, Uddaka Rāmaputta died
lastnight.’Andtheknowledgeandvisionaroseinme:‘UddakaRāmaputtadied
lastnight.’Ithought:‘UddakaRāmaputta’slossisagreatone.Ifhehadheard
thisDhamma,hewouldhaveunderstooditquickly.’
24.“Iconsideredthus:‘TowhomshouldIfirstteachtheDhamma?Whowill
understandthis Dhammaquickly?’ Itthen occurred to me: ‘Themonks ofthe
groupoffivewhoattendeduponmewhileIwasengagedinmystrivingwere
very helpful.
27
Suppose I taught the Dhamma first to them.’ Then I thought:
‘Wherearethemonksofthegroupoffivenowliving?’Andwiththedivineeye,
which is purified and surpasses the human, I saw that they were living at
BārāṇasīintheDeerParkatIsipatana.
25.“Then,monks,whenIhadstayedatUruvelāaslongasIchose,Isetoutto
wanderbystagestoBārāṇasī.BetweenGayāandtheBodhi,theĀjīvakaUpaka
sawmeontheroadandsaid:‘Friend,yourfacultiesareclear,thecolorofyour
skinispureandbright.Underwhomhaveyougoneforth,friend?Whoisyour
teacher? Whose Dhamma do you profess?’ I replied to the Ājīvaka Upaka in
stanzas:
‘Iamonewhohastranscendedall,aknowerofall,
Unsulliedamongallthings,renouncingall,
Bycraving’sceasingfreed.Havingknownthisall
Formyself,towhomshouldIpointasteacher?
‘Ihavenoteacher,andonelikeme
Existsnowhereinalltheworld
Withallitsdevas,becauseIhave
Nopersonformycounterpart.
‘ForIamthearahantintheworld,
Iamtheteachersupreme.
IaloneamaPerfectlyEnlightenedOne
Whosefiresarequenchedandextinguished.
‘IgonowtothecityofKāsi
TosetinmotionthewheelofDhamma.
Inaworldthathasbecomeblind
IgotobeatthedrumoftheDeathless.’
‘Byyourclaims,friend,yououghttobetheuniversalvictor.’
28
‘Thevictorsarethoselikeme
Whohavewonthedestructionoftaints.
Ihavevanquishedallevilstates,
Therefore,Upaka,Iamavictor.’
“Whenthiswassaid,theĀjīvakaUpakasaid:‘Mayitbeso,friend.’Shaking
hishead,hetookabypathanddeparted.
26.“Then,monks,wanderingbystages,IeventuallycametoBārāṇasī,tothe
DeerParkat Isipatana, andIapproached themonksof thegroupof five.The
monkssawmecominginthedistance,andtheyagreedamongthemselvesthus:
‘Friends,herecomestheasceticGotamawholivesluxuriously,whogaveuphis
strivingandrevertedtoluxury.Weshouldnotpayhomagetohimorriseupfor
himorreceivehisbowlandouterrobe.Butaseatmaybepreparedforhim.Ifhe
likes, he may sit down.’ However, as I approached, those monks found
themselvesunabletokeeptheirpact.Onecametomeetmeandtookmybowl
andouterrobe,anotherpreparedaseat,andanothersetoutwaterformyfeet;
however,theyaddressedmebynameandas‘friend.’
29
27.“ThereuponItoldthem:‘Monks,donotaddresstheTathāgatabyname
and as “friend.” The Tathāgata is an Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One.
Listen,monks,theDeathlesshasbeenattained.Ishallinstructyou,Ishallteach
youtheDhamma.Practicingasyouareinstructed,byrealizingitforyourselves
hereand now through direct knowledgeyou will soonenter and dwell in that
supremegoal of the holy life for the sake of whichclansmen rightly go forth
fromthehomelifeintohomelessness.’
“When this was said, the monks of the group of five answered me thus:
‘FriendGotama,bytheconduct,thepractice,andtheperformanceofausterities
that you undertook, you did not achieve any superhuman distinction in
knowledgeandvisionworthyofthenobleones.Sinceyounowliveluxuriously,
having given up your striving and reverted to luxury, how could you have
achieved any superhuman distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the
noble ones?’ When this was said, I told them: ‘The Tathāgata does not live
luxuriously, nor has he given up his striving and reverted to luxury. The
Tathāgata is an Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One. Listen, monks, the
Deathlesshasbeenattained…fromthehomelifeintohomelessness.’
“Asecondtimethemonksofthegroupoffivesaidtome:‘FriendGotama
how could you have achieved any superhuman distinction in knowledge and
visionworthyofthenobleones?’AsecondtimeItoldthem:‘TheTathāgatadoes
notliveluxuriously…fromthehomelifeintohomelessness.’Athirdtimethe
monksofthegroupoffivesaidtome:‘FriendGotama…howcouldyouhave
achieved any superhuman distinction in knowledge and vision worthy of the
nobleones?’
28.“WhenthiswassaidIaskedthem:‘Monks,haveyoueverknownmeto
speak like this before?’—‘No, venerable sir.’
30
—‘Monks, the Tathāgata is an
Arahant, a Perfectly Enlightened One. Listen, monks, the Deathless has been
attained.Ishallinstructyou,IshallteachyoutheDhamma.Practicingasyouare
instructed,byrealizingitforyourselveshereandnowthroughdirectknowledge,
youwillsoonenteranddwellinthatsupremegoaloftheholylifeforthesakeof
whichclansmenrightlygoforthfromthehomelifeintohomelessness.’
29. “I was able to convince the monks of the group of five.
31
Then I
sometimesinstructedtwomonkswhiletheotherthreewentforalms,andthesix
of us lived on what those three monks brought back from their almsround.
SometimesIinstructedthreemonkswhiletheothertwowentforalms,andthe
sixofuslivedonwhatthosetwomonksbroughtbackfromtheiralmsround.
30.“Thenthemonksofthegroupoffive,thustaughtandinstructedbyme,
being themselves subject to birth, having understood the danger in what is
subjectto birth, seeking the unborn supreme security from bondage, Nibbāna,
attainedtheunbornsupremesecurityfrombondage,Nibbāna;beingthemselves
subjecttoaging,sickness,death,sorrow,anddefilement,havingunderstoodthe
danger in what is subject to aging, sickness, death, sorrow, and defilement,
seeking the unaging, unailing, deathless, sorrowless, and undefiled supreme
securityfrombondage,Nibbāna,theyattainedtheunaging,unailing,deathless,
sorrowless, and undefiled supreme security from bondage, Nibbāna. The
knowledgeandvisionaroseinthem:‘Ourliberationisunshakable;thisisour
lastbirth;nowthereisnomorerenewedexistence.’”
(fromMN26:AriyapariyesanaSutta;I167–73)
5.THEFIRSTDISCOURSE
ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingatBārāṇasīin
theDeerParkatIsipatana.TheretheBlessedOneaddressedthemonksofthe
groupoffivethus:
“Monks, these two extremes should not be followed by one who has gone
forthintohomelessness.Whattwo?Thepursuitofsensualhappinessinsensual
pleasures,whichislow,vulgar,thewayofworldlings,ignoble,unbeneficial;and
thepursuitofself-mortification,whichispainful,ignoble,unbeneficial.Without
veering toward either of these extremes, the Tathāgata has awakened to the
middleway,whichgivesrisetovision,whichgivesrisetoknowledge,andleads
topeace,todirectknowledge,toenlightenment,toNibbāna.
“Andwhat,monks,isthatmiddlewayawakenedtobytheTathāgata?Itisthis
Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right
action,rightlivelihood,righteffort,rightmindfulness,rightconcentration.This,
monks, is that middle way awakened to by the Tathāgata, which gives rise to
vision,whichgivesrisetoknowledge,andleadstopeace,todirectknowledge,
toenlightenment,toNibbāna.
“Nowthis,monks,isthenobletruthofsuffering:birthissuffering,agingis
suffering,illnessissuffering,deathissuffering;unionwithwhatisdispleasingis
suffering; separation from what is pleasing is suffering; not to get what one
wantsissuffering;inbrief,thefiveaggregatessubjecttoclingingaresuffering.
“Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the origin of suffering: it is this
craving that leads to renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust,
seekingdelighthereandthere;thatis,cravingforsensualpleasures,cravingfor
existence,cravingforextermination.
“Now this, monks, is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering: it is the
remainderlessfadingawayandcessationofthatsamecraving,thegivingupand
relinquishingofit,freedomfromit,nonattachment.
“Nowthis, monks,is thenoble truthof theway leadingto thecessation of
suffering: it is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right
concentration.
“‘Thisisthenobletruthofsuffering’:thus,monks,inregardtothingsunheard
before,therearoseinmevision,knowledge,wisdom,penetration,andlight.
32
“‘This noble truth of suffering is to be fully understood’: thus, monks, in
regardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinmevision,knowledge,wisdom,
penetration,andlight.
33
“‘This noble truth of suffering has been fully understood’: thus, monks, in
regardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinmevision,knowledge,wisdom,
penetration,andlight.
34
“‘Thisisthenobletruthoftheoriginofsuffering’:thus,monks,inregardto
things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom,
penetration,andlight.
“‘Thisnobletruthoftheoriginofsufferingistobeabandoned’:thus,monks,
inregardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinmevision,knowledge,wisdom,
penetration,andlight.
“‘This noble truth of the origin of suffering has been abandoned’: thus,
monks,inregardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinmevision,knowledge,
wisdom,penetration,andlight.
“‘Thisisthenobletruthofthecessationofsuffering’:thus,monks,inregard
to things unheard before, there arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom,
penetration,andlight.
“‘Thisnobletruthofthecessationofsufferingistoberealized’:thus,monks,
inregardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinmevision,knowledge,wisdom,
penetration,andlight.
“‘This noble truth of the cessation of suffering has been realized’: thus,
monks,inregardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinmevision,knowledge,
wisdom,penetration,andlight.
“‘Thisisthenobletruthofthewayleadingtothecessationofsuffering’:thus,
monks,inregardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinmevision,knowledge,
wisdom,penetration,andlight.
“‘This noble truth of the way leading to the cessation of suffering is to be
developed’:thus,monks,inregardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinme
vision,knowledge,wisdom,penetration,andlight.
“‘Thisnobletruthofthe way leadingtothecessationof sufferinghasbeen
developed’:thus,monks,inregardtothingsunheardbefore,therearoseinme
vision,knowledge,wisdom,penetration,andlight.
“Solong,monks,asmyknowledgeandvisionoftheseFourNobleTruthsas
they really are in their three phases and twelve aspects was not thoroughly
purified in this way,
35
I did not claim to have awakened to the unsurpassed
perfect enlightenment in this world with its devas, Māra, and Brahmā, in this
populationwithitsasceticsandbrahmins,itsdevasandhumans.Butwhenmy
knowledgeandvisionoftheseFourNobleTruthsastheyreallyareintheirthree
phasesandtwelveaspectswasthoroughlypurifiedinthisway,thenIclaimedto
haveawakenedtotheunsurpassedperfectenlightenmentinthisworldwithits
devas,Māra,andBrahmā,inthispopulationwithitsasceticsandbrahmins,its
devasandhumans.Theknowledgeandvisionaroseinme:‘Unshakableisthe
liberation of my mind. This is my last birth. Now there is no more renewed
existence.’”
This is what the Blessed One said. Elated, the monks of the group of five
delighted in the Blessed One’s statement. And whilethis discoursewas being
spoken,therearoseintheVenerableKoṇḍaññathedust-free,stainlessvisionof
theDhamma:“Whateverissubjecttooriginationisallsubjecttocessation.”
36
AndwhenthewheeloftheDhammahadbeensetinmotionbytheBlessed
One, the earth-dwelling devas raised a cry: “At Bārāṇasī, in the Deer Park at
Isipatana,thisunsurpassedwheeloftheDhammahasbeensetinmotionbythe
Blessed One, which cannot be stopped by any ascetic or brahmin or deva or
MāraorBrahmāorbyanyoneintheworld.”Havingheardthecryoftheearth-
dwellingdevas,thedevasoftherealmoftheFourGreatKingsraisedacry:“At
Bārāṇasī…thisunsurpassedwheeloftheDhammahasbeensetinmotionby
theBlessedOne,whichcannotbestopped...byanyoneintheworld.”Having
heardthecryofthedevasoftherealmoftheFourGreatKings,theTāvatiṃsa
devas … the Yāma devas … the Tusita devas … the devas who delight in
creating…the devaswho wieldpower over others’ creations… the devasof
Brahmā’scompany
37
raisedacry:“AtBārāṇasī,intheDeerParkatIsipatana,
thisunsurpassedwheeloftheDhammahasbeensetinmotionbytheBlessed
One, which cannot be stopped by any ascetic or brahmin or deva or Māra or
Brahmāorbyanyoneintheworld.”
Thusatthatmoment,atthatinstant,atthatsecond,thecryspreadasfarasthe
brahma world, and this ten-thousand-fold world system shook, quaked, and
trembled,andanimmeasurablegreatradiancesurpassingthedivinemajestyof
thedevasappearedintheworld.
ThentheBlessedOneutteredthisinspiredutterance:“Koṇḍaññahasindeed
understood! Koṇḍañña has indeed understood!” In this way the Venerable
Koṇḍañña acquired the name “Aññā Koṇḍañña—Koṇḍañña Who Has
Understood.”
(SN56:11:DhammacakkappavattanaSutta;V420–24)
III.ApproachingtheDhamma
INTRODUCTION
One of the most distressing predicaments any earnest, open-minded spiritual
seekermightfaceisthesheerdifficultyofchoosingfromamongthebewildering
diversity of religious and spiritual teachings available. By their very nature,
spiritual teachings make claims upon our allegiance that are absolute and all-
encompassing. Adherents of a particular creed are prone to assert that their
religion alone reveals the final truth about our place in the universe and our
ultimatedestiny;theyboldlyproposethattheirpathaloneoffersthesuremeans
toeternalsalvation.Ifwecouldsuspendallbeliefcommitmentsandcomparethe
competing doctrines impartially, submitting them to empirical tests, we would
haveasure-firemethodofdecidingbetweenthem,andthenourordealwouldbe
over. But it isn’t that simple. Rival religions all propose—or presuppose—
doctrinesthatwecannotdirectlyvalidatebypersonalexperience;theyadvocate
tenetsthatcallforsomedegreeoftrust.So,astheirtenetsandpracticesclash,
werunupagainsttheproblemoffindingsomewaytodecidebetweenthemand
negotiatetheircompetingclaimstotruth.
Onesolutiontothisproblemistodenythatthereisanyrealconflictbetween
alternativebeliefsystems.Theadherentsofthisapproach,whichwemightcall
religious universalism, say that at their core all spiritual traditions teach
essentiallythesamething.Theirformulationsmaydifferbuttheirinnercoreis
the same, expressed differently merely to accord with different sensibilities.
What we need to do, the universalist says, when facedwith differentspiritual
traditions,istoextractthekernelofinnertruthfromthepodsoftheirexoteric
creeds.Fromgroundlevelourgoalslookdifferent,butfromtheheightswewill
findthegoalisthesame;itisliketheviewofthemoonfromdifferentmountain
peaks.Universalistsinmattersofdoctrineoftenendorseeclecticisminpractice,
holdingthatwecanselectwhateverpracticeswepreferandcombinethemlike
dishesatabuffet.
Thissolutiontotheproblemofreligiousdiversityhasanimmediateappealto
those disillusioned with the exclusive claims of dogmatic religion. Honest
critical reflection, however, would show that on the most vital issues the
differentreligionsandspiritualtraditionstakedifferentstandpoints.Theygiveus
verydifferentanswerstoourquestionsconcerningthebasicgroundsandgoals
ofthespiritualquestandoftenthesedifferencesarenotmerelyverbal.Tosweep
them away as being merely verbal may be an effective way of achieving
harmonybetweenfollowersofdifferentbeliefsystems,butitcannotwithstand
closeexamination.Intheend,itisaslittletenableassayingthat,becausethey
havebeaksandwings,eagles,sparrows,andchickensareessentiallythesame
typeofcreature,thedifferencesbetweenthembeingmerelyverbal.
It is not only theistic religions that teach doctrines beyond the range of
immediate empirical confirmation. The Buddha too taught doctrines that an
ordinary person cannot directly confirm by everyday experience, and these
doctrinesarefundamentaltothestructureofhisteaching.Wesaw,forexample,
in the introductions to chapters I and II, that the Nikāyas envisage a universe
withmanydomainsofsentientexistencespreadoutinboundlessspaceandtime,
auniverseinwhichsentientbeingsroamandwanderfromlifetolifeonaccount
oftheirignorance,craving,andkamma.TheNikāyaspresupposethatthroughout
beginninglesstime,Buddhaswithoutnumberhavearisenandturnedthewheel
of the Dhamma, and that each Buddha attains enlightenment after cultivating
spiritualperfectionsover longperiods ofcosmictime. Whenwe approachthe
Dhammawearelikelytoresistsuchbeliefsandfeelthattheymakeexcessive
demands on our capacity for trust. Thus we inevitably run up against the
questionwhether,ifwewishtofollowtheBuddha’steaching,wemusttakeon
boardtheentirepackageofclassicalBuddhistdoctrine.
ForEarlyBuddhism,alltheproblemswefaceindecidinghowfarweshould
go in placing faith can be disposed of at a single stroke. That single stroke
involvesrevertingtodirectexperienceastheultimatebasisforjudgment.Oneof
thedistinctivefeaturesoftheBuddha’steachingistherespectitaccordstodirect
experience.ThetextsofEarlyBuddhismdonotteachasecretdoctrine,nordo
they leave scope for anything like an esoteric path reserved for an élite of
initiatesandwithheldfromothers.AccordingtoTextIII,1,secrecyinareligious
teachingisthehallmarkofwrongviewsandconfusedthinking.Theteachingof
the Buddha shines openly, as radiant and brilliant as the light of the sun and
moon. Freedom from the cloak of secrecy is integral to a teaching that gives
primacytodirectexperience,invitingeachindividualtotestitsprinciplesinthe
crucibleofhisorherownexperience.
Thisdoesnot mean thatanordinary personcanfully validatetheBuddha’s
doctrinebydirectexperiencewithoutspecialeffort.Tothecontrary,theteaching
canonlybefullyrealizedthroughtheachievementofcertainextraordinarytypes
ofexperiencethatarefarbeyondtherangeoftheordinarypersonenmeshedin
theconcernsofmundanelife.However, in sharpcontrasttorevealedreligion,
theBuddhadoesnotdemandthatwebeginourspiritualquestbyplacingfaithin
doctrinesthatliebeyondtherangeofourimmediateexperience.Ratherthanask
us to wrestle with issues that, for us in our present condition , no amount of
experience can decide, he instead asks us to consider a few simple questions
pertainingtoourimmediatewelfareandhappiness,questionsthatwecananswer
on the basis of personal experience. I highlight the expression “for us in our
present condition,” because the fact that we cannot presently validate such
matters does not constitute grounds for rejecting them as invalid or even as
irrelevant.Itonlymeansthatweshouldputthemasideforthetimebeingand
concernourselveswithissuesthatcomewithintherangeofdirectexperience.
The Buddha says that his teaching is about suffering and the cessation of
suffering.ThisstatementdoesnotmeanthattheDhammaisconcernedonlywith
ourexperienceofsufferinginthepresentlife,butitdoesimplythatwecanuse
our present experience, backed by intelligent observation, as a criterion for
determining what is beneficial and what detrimental to our spiritual progress.
Ourmostinsistentexistentialdemand,springingupdeepwithinus,istheneed
forfreedom from harm, sorrow, and distress; or,positively stated, the needto
achieve well-being and happiness. However, to avoid harm and to secure our
well-being,itisnotsufficientforusmerelytohope.Wefirsthavetounderstand
theconditionsonwhichtheydepend.AccordingtotheBuddha,whateverarises,
arises through appropriate causes and conditions, and this applies with equal
force to suffering and happiness. Thus we must ascertain the causes and
conditions that lead to harm and suffering, and likewise the causes and
conditionsthatleadtowell-beingandhappiness.Oncewehaveextractedthese
twoprinciples—theconditionsleadingtoharmandsuffering,andtheconditions
leadingtowell-beingandhappiness—wehaveatourdisposalanoutlineofthe
entireprocessthatleadstotheultimategoal,finalliberationfromsuffering.
Onetextofferinganexcellentexampleofthisapproachisashortdiscoursein
theAṅguttara Nikāya popularly known as the Kālāma Sutta, included asText
III,2.TheKālāmaswereapeoplelivinginaremoteareaoftheGangesplain.
Variousreligiousteachers wouldcome tovisit themand eachwould extolhis
owndoctrineandteardownthedoctrinesofhisrivals.Confusedandperplexed
by this conflict of belief systems, the Kālāmas did not know whom to trust.
When the Buddha passed through their town, they approached him andasked
himtoclearawaytheirdoubts.Thoughthetextdoesnotspecifywhatparticular
issuesweretroublingtheKālāmas,thelaterpartofthediscoursemakesitclear
thattheirperplexitiesrevolvedaroundthequestionsofrebirthandkamma.
TheBuddhabeganbyassuringtheKālāmasthatundersuchcircumstancesit
was proper for them to doubt, for the issues that troubled them were indeed
commonsourcesofdoubtandperplexity.Hethentoldthemnottorelyonten
sourcesofbelief.Fourof these pertaintoestablishedscripturalauthority(oral
tradition,lineageofteaching,hearsay,andcollectionsoftexts);fourtorational
grounds(logic,inferentialreasoning,reasonedcogitation,andtheacceptanceof
aviewafterponderingit);andtwotoauthoritativepersons(impressivespeakers
and respected teachers). This advice is sometimes quoted to prove that the
Buddharejectedallexternalauthoritiesandinvitedeachindividualtofashionhis
orherownpersonalpathtotruth.Readincontext,however,themessageofthe
KālāmaSuttaisquitedifferent.TheBuddhaisnotadvisingtheKālāmas—who,
itmustbestressed,hadatthispointnotyetbecomehisowndisciples—toreject
allauthoritative guidesto spiritual understandingand fall backsolely on their
personalintuition.Rather,heisofferingthemasimpleandpragmaticoutletfrom
themorassofdoubtandperplexityinwhichtheyareimmersed.Bytheuseof
skillful methods of inquiry, he leads them to understand a number of basic
principles that they can verify by their own experience and thereby acquire a
surestartingpointforfurtherspiritualdevelopment.
1
Always underlying the Buddha’s questions and their replies is the tacit
premisethat peopleare primarilymotivated to actby a concern for theirown
welfareandhappiness. Inasking thisparticularset ofquestions, theBuddha’s
purposeistoleadtheKālāmastoseethat,evenwhenwesuspendallconcern
with future lives, unwholesome mental states such as greed, hatred, and
delusion, and unwholesome actions such as killing and stealing, eventually
redound to one’s own harm and suffering right here and now. Conversely,
wholesome mental states and wholesome actions promote one’s long-term
welfareandhappinesshereandnow.Oncethismuchisseen,theimmediately
visibleharmfulconsequencestowhichunwholesomementalstatesleadbecome
a sufficient reason for abandoning them, while the visible benefits to which
wholesome mental states lead become a sufficient motivation for cultivating
them.Then,whetherornotthereisalifeafterdeath,onehasadequatereasonsin
thepresentlifetoabandonunwholesomementalstatesandcultivatewholesome
mental states. If there is an afterlife, one’s recompense is simply that much
greater.
A similar approach underlies TextIII,3,in which the Buddha demonstrates
howpresentsufferingarisesandceasesincorrelationwithpresentcraving.This
shortsutta,addressedtoalayfollower,conciselyarticulatesthecausalprinciple
thatliesbehindtheFourNobleTruths,butratherthandoingsointheabstract,it
adoptsaconcrete,down-to-earthapproachthathasaremarkablycontemporary
appeal. By using powerful examples drawn from the life of a layman deeply
attachedtohiswifeandson,thesuttamakesadeepandlastingimpressionon
us.
ThefactthatsuchtextsasthissuttaandtheKālāmaSuttadonotdwellonthe
doctrinesofkammaandrebirthdoesnotmean,asissometimesassumed,that
suchteachingsaremereculturalaccretionstotheDhammathatcanbedeletedor
explained away without losing anything essential. It means only that, at the
outset,theDhammacanbeapproachedinwaysthatdonotrequirereferenceto
past and future lives. The Buddha’s teaching has many sides, and thus, from
certainangles,itcanbedirectlyevaluatedagainstourconcernforourpresent
well-being and happiness. Once we see that the practice of the teaching does
indeedbringpeace,joy,andinnersecurityinthisverylife,thiswillinspireour
trustandconfidenceintheDhammaasawhole,includingthoseaspectsthatlie
beyondourpresentcapacityfor personal verification.Ifwewereto undertake
certain practices—practices that require highly refined skills and determined
effort—wewouldbeabletoacquirethefacultiesneededtovalidatethoseother
aspects,suchas thelawof kamma, therealityof rebirth,andthe existence of
supersensiblerealms(seeTextVII,4§§23–24andTextVII,5§§19–20).
Anothermajorproblemthatoftenbesetsspiritualseekersisthedemandsthat
teachersplaceupontheircapacityfortrust.Thisproblemhasbecomeespecially
acuteinourowntime,whenthenewsmediagleefullyspotlightthefrailtiesof
numberlessgurusandjumpatthechancetoshowupanymodern-daysaintas
nothing better than a swindler in robes. But the problem of rogue gurus is a
perennialonebynomeanspeculiartoourage.Wheneveronepersonexercises
spiritualauthorityoverothers,itisonlytooeasyforthatpersontobetemptedto
exploitthetrustothersplaceinhiminwaysthatcanbeseriouslydetrimentalto
himselfandhisdisciples.Whenapupilapproachesateacherwhoclaimstobe
perfectlyenlightenedandthuscapableofteachingthepathtofinalliberation,the
pupil must have some criteria at hand for testing the teacher to determine
whethertheteachertrulymeasuresuptotheloftyclaimshemakesabouthimself
—orthatothersmakeabouthim.
IntheVīmaṃsaka Sutta—Text III,4—the Buddha lays down guidelines by
whichamonkcantest“theTathāgata,”thatis,theBuddha,toevaluatehisclaim
tobeperfectlyenlightened.Onebenchmarkofperfectenlightenmentisfreedom
ofthemindfromalldefilements.IfamonkcannotdirectlyseeintotheBuddha’s
own mind, he can nevertheless rely on indirect evidence to ascertain that the
Buddha is freed from defilements; that is, by evaluating the Buddha’s bodily
deedsand speech he can infer that the Buddha’s mental states are exclusively
pure, uninfluenced by greed, hatred, and delusion. In addition to such
observational inference, the Buddha further encourages the monk to approach
himanddirectlyinquireabouthismentalstates.
OncethepupilgainsconfidencethattheBuddhaisaqualifiedteacher,hethen
puts the Master to the ultimate test. He learns his teaching, enters upon the
practice, and penetrates the Dhamma by direct knowledge. This act of
penetration—here equivalent at minimum to the attainment of stream-entry—
bringsthegainof“invinciblefaith,”thefaithofonewhoisestablisheduponthe
irreversiblepathleadingtofinalrelease.
Takeninisolation,theVīmaṃsakaSuttamightgivetheimpressionthatone
acquiresfaithonlyaftergainingrealizationoftheteaching,andsincerealization
isself-validating,faithwouldthenbecomeredundant.Thisimpression,however,
would be one-sided. The point the sutta is making is that faith becomes
invincibleasa resultof realization,notthat faithfirstenters thespiritualpath
onlywhenoneattainsrealization.Faithisthefirstofthefivespiritualfaculties,
andinsomedegree,astrustingconfidenceintheBuddha’senlightenmentandin
themainprinciplesofhisteaching,itisaprerequisiteforthehighertraining.We
seefaithfunctioninginthispreparatoryroleinTextIII,5,alongexcerptfrom
the Caṅkī Sutta. Here, the Buddha explains that a person who has faith in
something “preserves truth” when he says “this is my faith.” He “preserves
truth” because he merely states what he believes without jumping to the
conclusionthatwhathebelievesisdefinitelytrueandanythingelsecontrarytoit
false.TheBuddhacontraststhe“preservationoftruth”(saccānurakkhanā)with
the “discovery of truth” (saccānubodha), which begins by placing faith in a
teacherwhohasprovedhimselfworthyoftrust.Havinggainedfaithinsucha
teacher,onethenapproacheshimforinstruction,learnstheDhamma,practicesit
(accordingtoaseriesofstepsmorefinelycalibratedthanintheprecedingtext),
andfinallyseesthesupremetruthforoneself.
Thisdoesnotyetmarktheendoftheroadforthedisciple,butonlytheinitial
breakthroughtothetruth,againcorrespondingtotheattainmentofstream-entry.
Having achieved the vision of truth, to reach the “final arrival at truth”
(saccānupatti)—that is, the attainment of arahantship or final liberation—one
mustrepeat,develop,andcultivatethesameseriesofstepsuntilonehasfully
absorbedandassimilatedthesupremetruthdisclosedbythatinitialvision.Thus
theentireprocessoftrainingintheDhammaisrootedinpersonalexperience.
Even faith should be rooted in investigation and inquiry and not based solely
uponemotional leaningsand blindbelief. Faithalone isinsufficientbutis the
doortodeeperlevelsofexperience.Faithservesasaspurtopractice;practice
leads to experiential understanding; and when one’s understanding matures, it
blossomsinfullrealization.
III.APPROACHINGTHEDHAMMA
1.NOTASECRETDOCTRINE
“These three things, monks, are conducted in secret, not openly. What three?
Affairswithwomen,themantrasofthebrahmins,andwrongview.
“Butthesethreethings,monks,shineopenly,notinsecret.Whatthree?The
moon,thesun,andtheDhammaandDisciplineproclaimedbytheTathāgata.”
(AN3:129;I282–83)
2.NODOGMASORBLINDBELIEF
Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was wandering on tour
togetherwithalargeSaṅghaofmonkswhenhearrivedatatownoftheKālāmas
named Kesaputta.
2
Now the Kālāmas of Kesaputta heard: “It is said that the
ascetic Gotama, the Sakyan son who went forth from a Sakyan family, has
arrived at Kesaputta. Now a good report about that master Gotama has been
circulating thus: ‘That Blessed One is an arahant, perfectly enlightened,
accomplished in true knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of theworld,
unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the
Enlightened One, the Blessed One. Having realized with his own direct
knowledgethisworldwithitsdevas,Māra,andBrahmā,thispopulationwithits
asceticsandbrahmins,withitsdevasandhumans,hemakesitknowntoothers.
He teaches a Dhamma that is good in the beginning, good in the middle, and
goodintheend,withtherightmeaningandexpression;herevealsaspirituallife
thatisperfectlycompleteandpurified.’Nowitisgoodtoseesucharahants.”
3
Then the Kālāmas of Kesaputta approached the Blessed One. Some paid
homagetohimandsatdowntooneside;someexchangedgreetingswithhim
and,aftertheirgreetingsandcordialtalk,satdowntooneside;somesalutedhim
reverentiallyandsatdowntooneside;someremainedsilentandsatdowntoone
side.ThentheKālāmassaidtotheBlessedOne:
“Venerablesir, some asceticsand brahmins who come to Kesaputta explain
andelucidatetheirowndoctrines,butdisparage,debunk,revile,andvilifythe
doctrines of others. But then some other ascetics and brahmins come to
Kesaputta,andtheytooexplainandelucidatetheirowndoctrines,butdisparage,
debunk,revile,andvilifythedoctrinesoftheothers.Forus,venerablesir,there
isperplexityanddoubtastowhichofthesegoodasceticsspeaktruthandwhich
speakfalsehood.”
“Itisfittingforyoutobeperplexed,OKālāmas,itisfittingforyoutobein
doubt.Doubthasariseninyouaboutaperplexingmatter.Come,Kālāmas.Do
notgobyoraltradition,bylineageofteaching, by hearsay, byacollectionof
texts, by logic, by inferential reasoning, by reasoned cogitation, by the
acceptanceofaviewafterponderingit,bytheseemingcompetenceofaspeaker,
or because you think, ‘The ascetic is our teacher.’
4
But when you know for
yourselves, ‘These things are unwholesome; these things are blamable; these
thingsarecensuredbythewise;thesethings,ifundertakenandpracticed,leadto
harmandsuffering,’thenyoushouldabandonthem.
“Whatdo you think, Kālāmas?Whengreed, hatred, anddelusion arise in a
person, is it for his welfare or harm?”
5—
“For his harm, venerable
sir.”—“Kālāmas,apersonwhoisgreedy,hating,anddeluded,overpoweredby
greed,hatred, and delusion,his thoughts controlledby them, willdestroy life,
takewhatisnotgiven,engageinsexualmisconduct,andtelllies;hewillalso
promptotherstodolikewise.Willthatconducetohisharmandsufferingfora
longtime?”—“Yes,venerablesir.”
“Whatdoyouthink,Kālāmas?Arethesethingswholesomeorunwholesome?
—”Unwholesome, venerable sir.”—“Blamable or blameless?”—“Blamable,
venerable sir.”—“Censured or praised by the wise?”—“Censured, venerable
sir.”—“Undertakenandpracticed,dotheyleadtoharmandsufferingornot,or
howisitinthiscase?”—“Undertakenandpracticed,thesethingsleadtoharm
andsuffering.Soitappearstousinthiscase.”
“Itwasforthisreason,Kālāmas,thatwesaid:Donotgobyoraltradition.…
“Come, Kālāmas. Do not go by oral tradition, by lineage of teaching,by
hearsay,byacollectionoftexts,bylogic,byinferentialreasoning,byreasoned
cogitation, by the acceptance of a view after pondering it, by the seeming
competenceofaspeaker,orbecauseyouthink,‘Theasceticisourteacher.’But
whenyouknowforyourselves,‘Thesethingsarewholesome;thesethingsare
blameless;thesethingsarepraisedbythewise;thesethings,ifundertakenand
practiced,leadtowelfareandhappiness,’thenyoushouldengageinthem.
“Whatdoyouthink,Kālāmas?Whennongreed,nonhatred,andnondelusion
arisein a person, is it for his welfare or harm?”—“For his welfare,venerable
sir.”—“Kālāmas, a person who is without greed, without hatred, without
delusion, not overpowered by greed, hatred, and delusion, his thoughts not
controlledbythem,willabstainfromthedestructionoflife,fromtakingwhatis
notgiven,fromsexualmisconduct,andfromfalsespeech;hewillalsoprompt
otherstodolikewise.Willthatconducetohiswelfareandhappinessforalong
time?”—“Yes,venerablesir.”
“Whatdoyouthink,Kālāmas?Arethesethingswholesomeorunwholesome?
—”Wholesome, venerable sir.”—“Blamable or blameless?” —“Blameless,
venerable sir.”—“Censured or praised by the wise?”—“Praised, venerable
sir.”—“Undertakenandpracticed,dotheyleadtowelfareandhappinessornot,
or how is it in this case?”—“Undertaken and practiced, these things lead to
welfareandhappiness.Soitappearstousinthiscase.”
“It was for this reason, Kālāmas, that we said: Do not go upon oral
tradition….
“Then, Kālāmas, that noble disciple—devoid of covetousness, devoid of ill
will,unconfused, clearly comprehending, ever mindful—dwells pervading one
quarterwithamindimbuedwithloving-kindness,likewisethesecondquarter,
thethird,andthefourth.
6
Thusabove,below,across,andeverywhere,andtoall
as to himself, he dwells pervading the entire world with a mind imbued with
loving-kindness,vast,exalted,measureless,withouthostilityandwithoutillwill.
“He dwells pervading one quarter with a mind imbued with compassion ...
withaltruisticjoy...withequanimity,likewisethesecondquarter,thethird,and
thefourth.Thusabove,below,across,andeverywhere,andtoallastohimself,
hedwellspervadingtheentireworldwithamindimbuedwithequanimity,vast,
exalted,measureless,withouthostilityandwithoutillwill.
“When,Kālāmas,thisnobledisciplehasthusmadehismindfreeofenmity,
freeofillwill,uncorruptedandpure,hehas won fourassurancesinthisvery
life.
“Thefirstassurancehehaswonisthis:‘Ifthereisanotherworld,andifgood
andbaddeedsbearfruitandyieldresults,itispossiblethatwiththebreakupof
thebody,afterdeath,Ishallariseinagooddestination,inaheavenlyworld.’
“Thesecondassurancehehaswonisthis:‘Ifthereisnootherworld,andif
goodand baddeeds do notbear fruitand yield results,still right here, inthis
verylife,Ilivehappily,freeofenmityandillwill.
“Thethirdassurancehehaswonisthis:‘Supposeevilbefallstheevil-doer.
Then,asIdonotintendevilforanyone,howcansufferingafflictme,onewho
doesnoevildeed?’
“Thefourth assurancehe has wonis this: ‘Supposeevil doesnot befall the
evil-doer.ThenrighthereIseemyselfpurifiedinbothrespects.’
7
“When,Kālāmas,thisnobledisciplehasthusmadehismindfreeofenmity,
freeofillwill,uncorrupted,andpure,hehaswonthesefourassurancesinthis
verylife.”
“Soitis,BlessedOne!Soitis,FortunateOne!Whenthisnobledisciplehas
thusmadehismindfreeofenmity,freeofillwill,uncorruptedandpure,hehas
wonthesefourassurancesinthisverylife.
“Magnificent,venerablesir!Magnificent,venerablesir!TheBlessedOnehas
madetheDhammaclearinmanyways,asthoughhewereturninguprightwhat
hadbeenoverthrown,revealingwhatwashidden,showingthewaytoonewho
waslost,orholdingupalampinthedarknesssothosewithgoodeyesightcan
seeforms.WenowgoforrefugetotheBlessedOne,totheDhamma,andtothe
Saṅghaofmonks.LettheBlessedOneacceptusaslayfollowerswhohavegone
forrefugefromtodayuntillife’send.”
8
(AN3:65;I188–93)
3.THEVISIBLEORIGINANDPASSINGAWAYOFSUFFERING
OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingatatownoftheMallansnamed
Uruvelakappa.ThenBhadrakatheheadman
9
approachedtheBlessedOne,paid
homage to him, sat down to one side, and said to him: “It would be good,
venerable sir, if the Blessed One would teach me about the origin and the
passingawayofsuffering.”
“If,headman,Iweretoteachyouabouttheoriginandthe passingawayof
sufferingwithreferencetothepast,saying,‘Soitwasinthepast,’perplexityand
uncertaintyaboutthatmightariseinyou.AndifIweretoteachyouaboutthe
originandthepassingawayofsufferingwithreferencetothefuture,saying,‘So
itwillbeinthefuture,’perplexityanduncertaintyaboutthatmightariseinyou.
Instead,headman,whileIamsittingrighthere,andyouaresittingrightthere,I
will teach you about the origin and the passing away of suffering. Listen and
attendclosely,Iwillspeak.”
“Yes,venerablesir,”Bhadrakareplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
“What do you think, headman? Are there any people in Uruvelakappa on
whoseaccountsorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespairwouldarisein
youiftheyweretobeexecuted,imprisoned,fined,orcensured?”
“Therearesuchpeople,venerablesir.”
“But are there any people in Uruvelakappa on whose account sorrow,
lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair would not arise in you in such an
event?”
“Therearesuchpeople,venerablesir.”
“Whyisit,headman,thatinrelationtosomepeopleinUruvelakappasorrow,
lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespairwouldariseinyouiftheyweretobe
executed,imprisoned,fined,orcensured,whileinregardtootherstheywould
notariseinyou?”
“Those people in Uruvelakappa, venerable sir, in relation to whom sorrow,
lamentation,pain,dejection, and despairwould arisein meifthey wereto be
executed,imprisoned,fined,orcensured—thesearetheonesforwhomIhave
desire and attachment. But those people in Uruvelakappain relationto whom
theywouldnotariseinme—thesearetheonesforwhomIhavenodesireand
attachment.”
“Headman,bymeansofthisprinciplethatisseen,understood,immediately
attained, fathomed, apply the method to the past and to the future thus:
‘Whateversufferingaroseinthepast,allthataroserootedindesire,withdesire
asitssource;fordesireistherootofsuffering.Whateversufferingwillarisein
thefuture,allthatwillariserootedindesire,withdesireasitssource;fordesire
istherootofsuffering.’”
“Itiswonderful,venerablesir!Itisamazing,venerablesir!Howwellthathas
beenstatedbytheBlessedOne:‘Whateversufferingarises,allthatisrootedin
desire,hasdesireasitssource;fordesireistherootofsuffering.’
10
Venerable
sir,IhaveasonnamedCiravāsī,whostaysatanoutsideresidence.Iriseearly
andsendaman,saying,‘Go,man,andfindouthowCiravāsīis.’Untilthatman
returns,venerablesir,Iamupset,thinking,‘IhopeCiravāsīhasnotmetwithany
affliction!’”
“Whatdoyouthink,headman?IfCiravāsīweretobeexecuted,imprisoned,
fined,orcensured,wouldsorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespairarise
inyou?”
“Venerablesir,ifCiravāsīweretobeexecuted,imprisoned,fined,orcensured,
even my life would seem futile, so how could sorrow, lamentation, pain,
dejection,anddespairnotariseinme?”
“Inthiswaytoo,headman,itcanbeunderstood:‘Whateversufferingarises,
allthatarisesrootedindesire,withdesireasitssource;fordesireistherootof
suffering.’
“Whatdoyouthink,headman?Beforeyousawyourwifeorheardabouther,
didyouhaveanydesire,attachment,oraffectionforher?”
“No,venerablesir.”
“Thenwasit,headman,onlywhenyousawherorheardaboutherthatthis
desire,attachment,andaffectionaroseinyou?”
“Yes,venerablesir.”
“Whatdoyouthink,headman?Ifyourwifeweretobeexecuted,imprisoned,
fined,orcensured,wouldsorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespairarise
inyou?”
“Venerablesir,ifmywifeweretobeexecuted,imprisoned,fined,orcensured,
even my life would seem futile, so how could sorrow, lamentation, pain,
dejection,anddespairnotariseinme?”
“Inthiswaytoo,headman,itcanbeunderstood:‘Whateversufferingarises,
allthatarisesrootedindesire,withdesireasitssource;fordesireistherootof
suffering.’”
(SN42:11;IV327–30)
4.INVESTIGATETHETEACHERHIMSELF
1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatSāvatthīin
Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s Park. There he addressedthe monks thus:
“Monks!”—“Venerablesir!”theyreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
2.“Monks,amonkwhoisaninquirer,notknowinghowtogaugeanothers
mind,
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should make an investigation of the Tathāgata in order to find out
whetherornotheisperfectlyenlightened.”
3.“Venerablesir,ourteachingsarerootedintheBlessedOne,guidedbythe
Blessed One, have the Blessed One as their resort. It would be good if the
BlessedOnewouldexplainthemeaningofthesewords.Havinghearditfrom
him,themonkswillrememberit.”
“Thenlisten,monks,andattendcloselytowhatIshallsay.”
“Yes,venerablesir,”themonksreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
4.“Monks,amonkwhoisaninquirer,notknowinghowtogaugeanothers
mind,shouldinvestigatetheTathāgatawithrespecttotwokindsofstates,states
cognizable through the eye and through the ear thus: ‘Are there found in the
Tathāgata or not any defiled states cognizable through the eye or through the
ear?’
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When he investigates him, he comes to know: ‘No defiled states
cognizablethroughtheeyeorthroughtheeararefoundintheTathāgata.’
5.“Whenhecomestoknowthis,heinvestigateshimfurtherthus:‘Arethere
found in theTathāgata or not any mixed states cognizable through the eye or
throughtheear?’
13
When he investigates him, he comes to know: ‘No mixed
statescognizablethroughtheeyeorthroughtheeararefoundintheTathāgata.’
6.“Whenhecomestoknowthis,heinvestigateshimfurtherthus:‘Arethere
found in the Tathāgata or not cleansed states cognizable through the eye or
throughtheear?’Whenheinvestigateshim,hecomestoknow:‘Cleansedstates
cognizablethroughtheeyeorthroughtheeararefoundintheTathāgata.’
7.“Whenhecomestoknowthis,heinvestigateshimfurtherthus:‘Hasthis
venerableoneattainedthiswholesomestateoveralongtimeordidheattainit
recently?’Whenheinvestigateshim,hecomestoknow:‘Thisvenerableonehas
attainedthiswholesomestateoveralongtime;hedidnotattainitonlyrecently.’
8.“Whenhecomestoknowthis,heinvestigateshimfurtherthus:‘Hasthis
venerableoneacquiredrenownandattainedfame,sothatthedangers[connected
withrenownandfame]arefoundinhim?’For,monks,aslongasamonkhasnot
acquired renown and attained fame, the dangers [connected with renown and
fame]arenotfoundinhim;butwhenhehasacquiredrenownandattainedfame,
thosedangersarefoundinhim.
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Whenheinvestigateshim,hecomestoknow:
‘This venerable one has acquired renown and attained fame, but the dangers
[connectedwithrenownandfame]arenotfoundinhim.’
9. “When he comes to know this, he investigates him further thus: ‘Is this
venerableonerestrainedwithoutfear,notrestrainedbyfear,anddoesheavoid
indulginginsensualpleasuresbecauseheiswithoutlustthroughthedestruction
oflust?’Whenheinvestigateshim,hecomestoknow:‘Thisvenerableoneis
restrainedwithoutfear,notrestrainedbyfear,andheavoidsindulginginsensual
pleasurebecauseheiswithoutlustthroughthedestructionoflust.’
10. “Now, monks, if others should ask that monk thus: ‘What are the
venerable one’s reasons and what is his evidence whereby he says: “That
venerable one is restrained without fear, not restrained by fear, and he avoids
indulginginsensualpleasuresbecauseheiswithoutlustthroughthedestruction
of lust”?’—answering rightly, that monk would answer thus: ‘Whether that
venerableonedwellsintheSaṅghaoralone,whilesometherearewellbehaved
andsomeareillbehavedandsomethereteachagroup,whilesomehereareseen
concernedaboutmaterialthingsandsomeareunsulliedbymaterialthings,still
thatvenerableonedoesnotdespiseanyonebecauseofthat.
15
AndIhaveheard
andlearnedthisfromtheBlessedOne’sownlips:“Iamrestrainedwithoutfear,
notrestrainedbyfear,andIavoidindulginginsensualpleasuresbecauseIam
withoutlustthroughthedestructionoflust.”’
11.“TheTathāgata,monks,shouldbequestionedfurtheraboutthatthus:‘Are
therefoundintheTathāgataornotanydefiledstatescognizablethroughtheeye
or through the ear?’ The Tathāgata would answer thus: ‘No defiled states
cognizablethroughtheeyeorthroughtheeararefoundintheTathāgata.’
12. “If asked, ‘Are there found in the Tathāgata or not any mixed states
cognizablethroughtheeyeorthroughtheear?’theTathāgatawouldanswerthus:
‘Nomixedstatescognizablethroughtheeyeorthroughtheeararefoundinthe
Tathāgata.’
13. “If asked, ‘Are there found in the Tathāgata or not cleansed states
cognizablethroughtheeyeorthroughtheear?’theTathāgatawouldanswerthus:
‘Cleansedstatescognizablethroughtheeyeorthroughtheeararefoundinthe
Tathāgata. They are my pathway and my domain, yet I do not identify with
them.’
14.“Monks,adiscipleshouldapproachtheTeacherwhospeaksthusinorder
toheartheDhamma.TheTeacherteacheshimtheDhammawithitssuccessively
higherlevels,withitssuccessivelymoresublimelevels,withitsdarkandbright
counterparts.AstheTeacherteachestheDhammatoamonkinthisway,through
directknowledgeofacertainteachinghereinthatDhamma,themonkcomesto
a conclusion about the teachings.
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He places confidence in the Teacher thus:
‘TheBlessedOneisperfectlyenlightened,theDhammaiswellproclaimedby
theBlessedOne,theSaṅghaispracticingthegoodway.’
15.“Nowifothersshouldaskthatmonkthus:‘Whatarethevenerableone’s
reasonsandwhatishisevidencewherebyhesays,“TheBlessedOneisperfectly
enlightened,theDhammaiswellproclaimedbytheBlessedOne,theSaṅghais
practicingthegoodway”?’—answeringrightly,thatmonkwouldanswerthus:
‘Here,friends,IapproachedtheBlessedOneinordertoheartheDhamma.The
BlessedOnetaughtmetheDhammawithitssuccessivelyhigherlevels,withits
successivelymoresublimelevels,withitsdarkandbrightcounterparts.Asthe
BlessedOnetaughttheDhammatomeinthisway,throughdirectknowledgeof
a certain teaching here in that Dhamma, I came to a conclusion about the
teachings.IplacedconfidenceintheTeacherthus:“TheBlessedOneisperfectly
enlightened,theDhammaiswellproclaimedbytheBlessedOne,theSaṅghais
practicingthegoodway.”’
16.“Monks,whenanyone’sfaithhasbeenplanted,rooted,andestablishedin
theTathāgatathroughthesereasons,terms,andphrases, hisfaithissaid to be
supported by reasons, rooted in vision, firm; it is invincible by any ascetic or
brahminordevaorMāraorBrahmāorbyanyoneintheworld.
17
Thatishow,
monks, there is an investigation of the Tathāgata in accordance with the
Dhamma,andthatishowtheTathāgataiswellinvestigatedinaccordancewith
theDhamma.”
ThatiswhattheBlessedOnesaid.Themonksweresatisfiedanddelightedin
theBlessedOne’swords.
(MN47:VīmaṃsakaSutta;I317–20)
5.STEPSTOWARDTHEREALIZATIONOFTRUTH
10.ThenthebrahminCaṅkī,
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togetherwithalargecompanyofbrahmins,went
totheBlessedOne,exchangedgreetingswithhim,andsatdownatoneside.
11.NowonthatoccasiontheBlessedOnewasseatedfinishingsomeamiable
talkwithsomeveryseniorbrahmins.Atthetime,sittingintheassembly,wasa
brahminstudentnamedKāpaṭhika.Young,shaven-headed,sixteenyearsold,he
wasamasterofthethreeVedaswiththeirvocabularies,liturgy,phonology,and
etymology,andthehistoriesasafifth;skilledinphilologyandgrammar,hewas
fullyversedinnaturalphilosophyandinthemarks of agreatman.Whilethe
veryseniorbrahminswereconversingwiththeBlessedOne,herepeatedlybroke
inandinterruptedtheirtalk.ThentheBlessedOnerebukedthebrahminstudent
Kāpaṭhika thus: “The honorable Bhāradvāja
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shouldn’t break in and interrupt
thetalkoftheveryseniorbrahminswhiletheyareconversing.Heshouldwait
untilthetalkisfinished.”
When this was said, the brahmin Caṅkī said to the Blessed One: “Master
Gotamashouldn’trebukethebrahminstudentKāpaṭhika.Thisbrahminstudent
isverylearned;hehasagooddelivery;heiswise.Hecanwelltakepartinthis
discussionwithMasterGotama.”
12. Then the Blessed One thought: “Surely, since the brahmins honor him
thus,thebrahminstudentKāpaṭhikamustbeaccomplishedinthescripturesof
thethreeVedas.”
Then the brahmin student Kāpaṭhika thought: “When the ascetic Gotama
catchesmyeye,Ishallaskhimaquestion.”
Then, knowing with his own mind the thought in the brahmin student
Kāpaṭhika’smind,theBlessedOneturnedhiseyetowardhim.Thenthebrahmin
studentKāpaṭhikathought:“TheasceticGotamahasturnedtowardme.Suppose
I ask him a question.” Then he said to the Blessed One: “Master Gotama, in
regard to the ancient brahmin hymns that have come down through oral
transmission, preserved in the collections, the brahmins come to the definite
conclusion: ‘Only this is true, anything else is wrong.’ What does Master
Gotamasayaboutthis?”
13. “How then, Bhāradvāja, among the brahmins is there even a single
brahminwhosaysthus:‘Iknowthis,Iseethis:onlythisistrue,anythingelseis
wrong’?”—“No,MasterGotama.”
“Howthen,Bhāradvāja,amongthebrahminsisthereevenasingleteacheror
asingleteachersteacherback totheseventhgenerationofteacherswhosays
thus:‘Iknowthis,Iseethis:onlythisistrue,anythingelseiswrong’?”—“No,
MasterGotama.”
“Howthen,Bhāradvāja,theancientbrahminseers,thecreatorsofthehymns,
thecomposersofthehymns,whoseancienthymnsthatwereformerlychanted,
uttered,andcompiled,thebrahminsnowadaysstillchantandrepeat,repeating
what was spoken and reciting what was recited—that is, Aṭṭhaka, Vāmaka,
Vāmadeva, Vessāmitta, Yamataggi, Angirasa, Bhāradvāja, Vāseṭṭha, Kassapa,
andBhagu
20
—dideventheseancientbrahminseerssaythus:‘Weknowthis,we
seethis:onlythisistrue,anythingelseiswrong’?”—“No,MasterGotama.”
“So,Bhāradvāja,itseemsthatamongthebrahminsthereisnotevenasingle
brahminwhosaysthus:‘Iknowthis,Iseethis:onlythisistrue,anythingelseis
wrong.’Andamongthebrahminsthereisnotevenasingleteacherorasingle
teachersteacherbackto the seventhgenerationofteachers,whosaysthus:‘I
knowthis,Iseethis:onlythisistrue,anythingelseiswrong.’Andtheancient
brahminseers,thecreatorsofthehymns,thecomposersofthehymns...even
theseancientbrahminseersdidnotsaythus:‘Weknowthis,weseethis:only
thisistrue,anythingelseiswrong.’Supposetherewereafileofblindmeneach
intouchwiththenext:thefirstonedoesnotsee,themiddleonedoesnotsee,
andthelastonedoesnotsee.Sotoo,Bhāradvāja,inregardtotheirstatementthe
brahmins seem to be like a file of blind men: the first one does not see, the
middle one does not see, and the last one does not see. What do you think,
Bhāradvāja, that being so, does not the faith of the brahmins turn out to be
groundless?”
14.“Thebrahminshonorthisnotonlyoutoffaith,MasterGotama.Theyalso
honoritasoraltradition.”
“Bhāradvāja, first you took your stand on faith, now you speak of oral
tradition.Thereare five things, Bhāradvāja,thatmayturnoutintwodifferent
ways here and now. What five? Faith, approval, oral tradition, reasoned
cogitation, and acceptance of a view as a result of pondering it.
21
These five
thingsmayturnoutintwodifferentwayshereandnow.Nowsomethingmaybe
fullyacceptedoutoffaith,yetitmaybeempty,hollow,andfalse;butsomething
else may not be fully accepted out of faith, yet it may be factual, true, and
unmistaken.Again,somethingmaybefullyapprovedof…welltransmitted
well cogitated ... well pondered, yet it may be empty, hollow, and false; but
something else may not be well pondered, yet it may be factual, true, and
unmistaken. [Under these conditions] it is not proper for a wise man who
preservestruthtocometothedefiniteconclusion:‘Onlythisistrue,anything
elseiswrong.’”
22
15. “But, Master Gotama, in what way is there the preservation of truth?
23
Howdoesonepreservetruth?WeaskMasterGotamaaboutthepreservationof
truth.”
“Ifapersonhasfaith,Bhāradvāja,hepreservestruthwhenhesays:‘Myfaith
isthus’;buthedoesnotyetcometothedefiniteconclusion:‘Onlythisistrue,
anything else is wrong.’ In this way, Bhāradvāja, there is the preservation of
truth;inthiswayhepreservestruth;inthiswaywedescribethepreservationof
truth.Butasyetthereisnodiscoveryoftruth.
24
“Ifapersonapprovesofsomething…ifhereceivesanoraltradition…ifhe
[reachesaconclusionbasedon]reasonedcogitation…ifheacceptsaviewasa
resultofponderingit,hepreservestruthwhenhesays:‘TheviewthatIacceptas
a result of pondering it is thus’; but he does not yet come to the definite
conclusion: ‘Only this is true, anything else is wrong.’ In this way too,
Bhāradvāja,thereisthepreservationoftruth;inthiswayhepreservestruth;in
thiswaywedescribethepreservationoftruth.Butasyetthereisnodiscoveryof
truth.”
16.“Inthatway,MasterGotama,thereisthepreservationoftruth;inthatway
onepreservestruth;inthatwaywerecognizethepreservationoftruth.Butin
whatway,MasterGotama,istherethediscoveryoftruth?Inwhatwaydoesone
discovertruth?WeaskMasterGotamaaboutthediscoveryoftruth.”
17.“Here,Bhāradvāja,amonkmaybelivingindependenceonsomevillage
ortown.Thenahouseholderorahouseholderssongoestohimandinvestigates
him in regard to three kinds of states: in regard to states based on greed, in
regardtostatesbasedonhate,andin regard tostatesbasedondelusion:‘Are
thereinthismonkanystatesbasedongreedsuchthat,withhismindobsessed
bythosestates,whilenotknowinghemightsay,“Iknow,”orwhilenotseeing
hemightsay,“Isee,”orhemighturgeotherstoactinawaythatwouldleadto
theirharmandsufferingforalongtime?’Asheinvestigateshimhecomesto
know:‘Thereare no suchstatesbased ongreedin thismonk.The bodilyand
verbal behavior of this monk are not those of one affected by greed. And the
Dhamma that he teaches is profound, hard to see and hard to understand,
peacefulandsublime,unattainablebymerereasoning,subtle,tobeexperienced
bythewise.ThisDhammacannoteasilybetaughtbyoneaffectedbygreed.’
18.“Whenhehasinvestigatedhimandhasseenthatheispurifiedfromstates
basedongreed,henextinvestigateshiminregardtostatesbasedonhate:‘Are
thereinthismonkanystatesbasedonhatesuchthat,withhismindobsessedby
thosestates...hemighturgeotherstoactinawaythatwouldleadtotheirharm
andsufferingforalongtime?’Asheinvestigateshim,hecomestoknow:‘There
arenosuchstatesbasedonhateinthismonk.Thebodilyandverbalbehaviorof
thismonkarenotthoseofoneaffectedbyhate.AndtheDhammathatheteaches
isprofound… tobe experiencedby thewise.This Dhammacannot easily be
taughtbyoneaffectedbyhate.’
19.“Whenhehasinvestigatedhimandhasseenthatheispurifiedfromstates
based on hate, he next investigates him in regard to states based on delusion:
‘Aretherein this monkanystates basedondelusion suchthat,with his mind
obsessedbythosestates...hemighturgeotherstoactinawaythatwouldlead
totheirharmandsufferingforalongtime?’Asheinvestigateshim,hecomesto
know:‘Therearenosuchstatesbasedondelusioninthismonk.Thebodilyand
verbalbehaviorofthismonkarenotthoseofoneaffectedbydelusion.Andthe
Dhamma that he teaches is profound … to be experienced by the wise. This
Dhammacannoteasilybetaughtbyoneaffectedbydelusion.’
20.“Whenhehasinvestigatedhimandhasseenthatheispurifiedfromstates
basedondelusion,thenheplacesfaithinhim;filledwithfaithhevisitshimand
paysrespecttohim;havingpaidrespecttohim,hegivesear;whenhegivesear,
hehearstheDhamma;havingheardtheDhamma,hememorizesitandexamines
the meaning of the teachings he has memorized; when he examines their
meaning,heacceptsthoseteachingsasaresultofponderingthem;whenhehas
acceptedthoseteachingsasaresultofponderingthem,desirespringsup;when
desirehassprungup,heapplieshiswill;havingappliedhiswill,hescrutinizes;
havingscrutinized,hestrives;resolutelystriving,herealizeswiththebodythe
supreme truth and sees it by penetrating it with wisdom.
25
In this way,
Bhāradvāja,thereisthediscoveryof truth;inthiswayone discoverstruth;in
thiswaywedescribethediscoveryoftruth.Butasyetthereisnofinalarrivalat
truth.”
26
21.“Inthatway,MasterGotama,thereisthediscoveryoftruth;inthatway
onediscoverstruth;inthatwaywerecognizethediscoveryoftruth.Butinwhat
way, Master Gotama, is there the finalarrival at truth?In what waydoes one
finallyarriveattruth?WeaskMasterGotamaaboutthefinalarrivalattruth.”
“Thefinalarrivalattruth,Bhāradvāja,liesinthe repetition,development,and
cultivationofthosesamethings.Inthisway,Bhāradvāja,thereisthefinalarrival
attruth;inthiswayonefinallyarrivesattruth;inthiswaywedescribethefinal
arrivalattruth.”
22.“Inthatway,MasterGotama,thereisthefinalarrivalattruth;inthatway
onefinallyarrivesattruth;inthatwaywerecognizethefinalarrivalattruth.But
what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for the final arrival at truth? We ask
MasterGotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforthefinalarrivalattruth.”
“Strivingismosthelpfulforthefinalarrivalattruth,Bhāradvāja.Ifonedoes
notstrive,onewillnotfinallyarriveattruth;butbecauseonestrives,onedoes
finallyarriveattruth.Thatiswhystrivingismosthelpfulforthefinalarrivalat
truth.”
23.“Butwhat,MasterGotama,ismosthelpfulforstriving?WeaskMaster
Gotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforstriving.”
“Scrutinyismosthelpfulforstriving,Bhāradvāja.Ifonedoesnotscrutinize,
onewillnotstrive;butbecauseonescrutinizes,onestrives.Thatiswhyscrutiny
ismosthelpfulforstriving.”
24.“Butwhat,MasterGotama,ismosthelpfulforscrutiny?WeaskMaster
Gotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforscrutiny.”
“Applicationofthewillismosthelpfulforscrutiny,Bhāradvāja.Ifonedoes
notapplyone’swill,onewillnotscrutinize;butbecauseoneappliesone’swill,
onescrutinizes.Thatiswhyapplicationofthewillismosthelpfulforscrutiny.”
25.“Butwhat,MasterGotama,ismosthelpfulforapplicationofthewill?We
askMasterGotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforapplicationofthewill.”
“Desireismosthelpfulforapplicationofthewill,Bhāradvāja.Ifonedoesnot
arousedesire,onewillnotapplyone’swill;butbecauseonearousesdesire,one
appliesone’swill.Thatiswhydesireismosthelpfulforapplicationofthewill.”
26. “But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for desire? We ask Master
Gotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulfordesire.”
“Accepting the teachings as a result of pondering them is most helpful for
desire,Bhāradvāja.Ifonedoesnotaccepttheteachingsasaresultofpondering
them,desirewillnotspringup;butbecauseoneacceptstheteachingsasaresult
ofponderingthem,desirespringsup.Thatiswhyacceptingtheteachingsasa
resultofponderingthemismosthelpfulfordesire.”
27.“Butwhat,MasterGotama,ismosthelpfulforacceptingtheteachingsasa
resultofponderingthem?WeaskMasterGotamaaboutthethingmosthelpful
foracceptingtheteachingsasaresultofponderingthem.”
“Examinationofthemeaningismosthelpfulforacceptingtheteachingsasa
resultof pondering them, Bhāradvāja. If one does not examinetheir meaning,
onewillnotaccepttheteachingsasaresultofponderingthem;butbecauseone
examinestheirmeaning,oneacceptstheteachingsasaresultofponderingthem.
That is why examination of the meaning is most helpful for accepting the
teachingsasaresultofponderingthem.”
28. “But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for examination of the
meaning?WeaskMasterGotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforexamination
ofmeaning.”
“Memorizing the teachings is most helpful for examining the meaning,
Bhāradvāja. If one does not memorize a teaching, one will not examine its
meaning;butbecauseonememorizesateaching,oneexaminesitsmeaning.”
29.“Butwhat,MasterGotama,ismosthelpfulformemorizingtheteachings?
We ask Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for memorizing the
teachings.”
“Hearing the Dhamma is most helpful for memorizing the teachings,
Bhāradvāja. If one does not hear the Dhamma, one will not memorize the
teachings; but because one hears the Dhamma, one memorizes the teachings.
ThatiswhyhearingtheDhammaismosthelpfulformemorizingtheteachings.”
30.“Butwhat,MasterGotama,ismosthelpfulforhearingtheDhamma?We
askMasterGotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforhearingtheDhamma.”
“GivingearismosthelpfulforhearingtheDhamma,Bhāradvāja.Ifonedoes
notgiveear,onewillnotheartheDhamma;butbecauseonegivesear,onehears
theDhamma.ThatiswhygivingearismosthelpfulforhearingtheDhamma.”
31.“Butwhat,MasterGotama,ismosthelpfulforgivingear?WeaskMaster
Gotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforgivingear.”
“Payingrespectismosthelpfulforgivingear,Bhāradvāja.Ifonedoesnotpay
respect,onewillnotgiveear;butbecauseonepaysrespect,onegivesear.That
iswhypayingrespectismosthelpfulforgivingear.”
32. “But what, Master Gotama, is most helpful for paying respect? We ask
MasterGotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforpayingrespect.”
“Visitingismosthelpfulforpayingrespect,Bhāradvāja.Ifonedoesnotvisita
teacher, onewillnot payrespectto him;butbecauseone visitsateacher, one
paysrespecttohim.Thatiswhyvisitingismosthelpfulforpayingrespect.”
33.“Butwhat, Master Gotama,ismost helpfulforvisiting?We askMaster
Gotamaaboutthethingmosthelpfulforvisiting.”
“Faithismosthelpfulforvisiting,Bhāradvāja.Iffaithinateacherdoesnot
arise,onewillnotvisithim;butbecausefaithinateacherarises,onevisitshim.
Thatiswhyfaithismosthelpfulforvisiting.”
34. “We asked Master Gotama about the preservation of truth, and Master
Gotamaansweredaboutthepreservationoftruth;weapproveofandacceptthat
answer,andsowearesatisfied.WeaskedMasterGotamaaboutthediscoveryof
truth,andMasterGotamaansweredaboutthediscoveryoftruth;weapproveof
andacceptthatanswer,andsowearesatisfied.WeaskedMasterGotamaabout
thefinalarrivalattruth,andMasterGotamaansweredaboutthefinalarrivalat
truth;weapproveofandacceptthatanswer,andsowearesatisfied.Weasked
Master Gotama about the thing most helpful for the final arrival at truth, and
Master Gotama answered about the thing most helpful for the final arrival at
truth;weapproveofandacceptthatanswer,andsowearesatisfied.Whatever
we asked Master Gotama about, that he has answered us; we approve of and
acceptthatanswer,andsowearesatisfied.Formerly,MasterGotama,weused
tothink:‘Whoarethesebald-headedascetics,thesedarkmenialoffspringofthe
Lord’sfeet,thattheywouldunderstandtheDhamma?’
27
ButMasterGotamahas
indeed inspired in me love for ascetics, confidence in ascetics, reverence for
ascetics.
35.“Magnificent,MasterGotama!Magnificent,MasterGotama!…[asinText
III,2]...FromtodayletMasterGotamaremembermeasalayfollowerwhohas
gonetohimforrefugeforlife.”
(fromMN95:CaṅkīSutta;II168–77)
IV.TheHappinessVisibleinThisPresentLife
INTRODUCTION
Is it the case, as some scholars hold, that the Buddha’s original message was
exclusivelyoneofworld-transcendingliberation,withlittlerelevanceforpeople
stuckinthe routinesof worldlylife?Did theancient Buddhists believethat it
wasonlyinthemonasterythattherealpracticeoftheDhammabeganandthat
only those who left the world were considered proper receptacles of the
teaching?Didthe Buddha’steachings for thelaity haveno morethana token
significance?Weretheymainlyinjunctionstoacquiremeritbyofferingmaterial
supporttothemonasticorderanditsmemberssothattheycouldbecomemonks
and nuns (preferably monks) in future lives and then get down to the real
practice?
Atcertainperiods,inalmostalltraditions,Buddhistshavelentsupporttothe
assumptionsthatunderliethesequestions.Theyhavespurnedconcernwiththe
present life and dismissed the world as a valley of tears, a deceptive illusion,
convinced that the sign of spiritual maturity is an exclusive focus on
emancipation from the round of birth and death. Monks have sometimes
displayedlittleinterestinshowingthosestillstuckintheworldhowtousethe
wisdomoftheDhammatodealwiththeproblemsofordinarylife.Householders
inturnhaveseenlittlehopeofspiritualprogressintheirownchosenmodeof
life and have thus resigned themselves merely to gaining merit by offering
materialsupporttothemonks.
Whilethe Nikāyas reveal the crownof the Buddha’s teachings to lie in the
path to final release from suffering, it would be a mistake to reduce the
teachings,sodiverseintheoriginalsources,totheirtranscendentpinnacle.We
must again recall the statement that a Buddha arises “for the welfare of the
multitude,forthehappinessofthemultitude…outofcompassionfortheworld,
forthegood,welfare,andhappinessofdevasandhumans”(p.50).Thefunction
ofaBuddhaistodiscover,realize,andproclaimtheDhammainitsfullrange
and depth, and this involves a comprehensive understanding of the varied
applicationsoftheDhammainallitsmultipledimensions.ABuddhanotonly
penetratestothe unconditionedstate of perfectbliss thatlies beyondsaṃsāra,
outsidethepaleofbirth,aging,anddeath;henotonlyproclaimsthepathtofull
enlightenment and final liberation; but he also illuminates the many ways the
Dhamma applies to the complex conditions of human life for people still
immersedintheworld.
TheDhamma,initsbroadestsense,istheimmanent,invariableorderofthe
universe in which truth, lawful regularity, and virtue are inextricably merged.
ThiscosmicDhammaisreflectedinthehumanmindastheaspirationfortruth,
spiritualbeauty,andgoodness;itisexpressedinhumanconductaswholesome
bodily,verbal,andmentalaction.TheDhammahasinstitutionalembodimentsas
wellasexpressionsinthelivesofindividualswholookuponitastheirsourceof
guidanceintheproperconductoflife.Theseembodimentsarebothsecularand
spiritual.BuddhisttraditionseestheresponsibilityforupholdingtheDhammain
the secular domain as falling to the legendary wheel-turning monarch (rājā
cakkavattī).Thewheel-turningmonarchisthebenevolentrulerwhogovernshis
kingdominaccordancewiththehighestethicalnorms(dhammikodhammarājā)
andthereby peacefully unites the world under a reignof universal justice and
prosperity.AsTextIV,1(1)shows,withinthespiritualdomain,theBuddhaisthe
counterpartofthewheel-turningmonarch.Likethelatter,theBuddharelieson
theDhammaandreverestheDhamma,butwhereasthewheel-turningmonarch
reliesupontheDhammaasprincipleofrighteousnesstorulehiskingdom,the
Buddha relies upon the Dhamma as ethical and spiritual norm to teach and
transformhumanbeingsandguidethemtowardproperconductofbody,speech,
and mind. Neither the wheel-turning monarch nor the Buddha creates the
Dhammatheyuphold,yetneithercanperformtheirrespectivefunctionswithout
it;fortheDhammaistheobjective,impersonal,ever-existentprincipleoforder
that serves as the source and standard for their respective policies and
promulgations.
AsthekingoftheDhamma,theBuddhatakesupthetaskofpromotingthe
true good, welfare, and happiness of the world. He does so by teaching the
peopleoftheworldhowtoliveinaccordancewiththeDhammaandbehavein
suchawaythattheycanattainrealizationofthesameliberatingDhammathat
herealizedthroughhisenlightenment.ThePālicommentariesdemonstratethe
broad scope of the Dhamma by distinguishing three types of benefit that the
Buddha’s teaching is intended to promote, graded hierarchically according to
theirrelativemerit:
1.welfareandhappinessdirectlyvisibleinthispresentlife(dị̣hadhamma-
hitasukha ), attained by fulfilling one’s moral commitments and social
responsibilities;
2.welfareandhappinesspertainingtothenextlife(sampar̄yikahitasukha),
attainedbyengaginginmeritoriousdeeds;
3.theultimategoodorsupremegoal(paramattha),Nibbāna,finalrelease
from the cycle of rebirths, attained by developing the Noble Eightfold
Path.
While many Western writers on Early Buddhism have focused on this last
aspect as almost exclusively representing the Buddha’s original teaching, a
balancedpresentationshouldgiveconsiderationtoallthreeaspects.Therefore,
inthischapterandthosetofollow,wewillbeexploringtextsfromtheNikāyas
thatillustrateeachofthesethreefacetsoftheDhamma.
ThepresentchapterincludesavarietyoftextsontheBuddha’steachingsthat
pertain to the happiness directly visible in this present life. The most
comprehensive Nikāya text in this genre is the Sigālaka Sutta (DN 31, also
knownastheSiṅgalovādaSutta),sometimescalled“TheLayperson’sCodeof
Discipline.” The heart of this sutta is the section on “worshipping the six
directions”—TextIV,1(2)—inwhich the Buddha freely reinterprets an ancient
Indian ritual, infusing it with a new ethical meaning. The practice of
“worshippingthesixdirections,”asexplainedbytheBuddha,presupposesthat
society is sustained by a network of interlocking relationships that bring
coherencetothesocialorderwhenitsmembersfulfilltheirreciprocaldutiesand
responsibilitiesinaspiritofkindness,sympathy,andgoodwill.Thesixbasic
social relationships that the Buddha draws upon to fill out his metaphor are:
parents and children, teacher and pupils, husband and wife, friend and friend,
employerandworkers,layfollowerandreligiousguides.Eachisconsideredone
ofthesixdirectionsinrelationtoitscounterpart.ForayoungmanlikeSigālaka,
hisparentsaretheeast,histeachersthesouth,hiswifeandchildrenthewest,his
friendsthenorth,hisworkersthenadir,andreligiousguidesthezenith.Withhis
customarysenseofsystematicconcision,theBuddhaascribestoeachmemberof
each pair five obligations with respect to his or her counterpart; when each
memberfulfillstheseobligations,thecorresponding“direction”comestobe“at
peaceandfreefromfear.”“Thus,forEarlyBuddhism,thesocialstabilityand
securitythatcontributetohumanhappinessaremosteffectivelyachievedwhen
everymemberofsocietyfulfillsthevariousdutiesthatbefallthemasdetermined
by their social relationships. Each person rises above the demands of narrow
self-interest and develops a sincere, large-hearted concern for the welfare of
othersandthegreatergoodofthewhole.”
FromthisgeneralcodeoflayBuddhistethics,weturntotextsthatoffermore
specificpointsofadvice,beginningwithaselectionofsuttason“TheFamily.”
Thishasseparatesectionson“ParentsandChildren”(IV,2(1))and“Husbands
andWives”(IV,2(2)).InkeepingwiththenormsofIndiansociety—infact,of
virtuallyalltraditionalagrariansocieties—theBuddharegardsthefamilyasthe
basicunitofsocialintegrationandacculturation.Itisespeciallytheclose,loving
relationshipbetween parents and children that fosters the virtues and sense of
humane responsibility essential to a cohesive social order. Within the family,
these values are transmitted from one generation to the next, and thus a
harmonious society is highly dependent on harmonious relations between
parentsandchildren.TheBuddhaemphasizesfilialpiety—TextIV,2(1)(a)—and
thegratitudeofchildrentotheirparents,adebttheycanadequatelyrepayonly
byestablishingtheirparentsintheproperDhamma—TextIV,2(1)(b).
Wholesomerelations between parents and childrendepend in turn upon the
mutual affection and respect of husband and wife, and thus the Buddha also
offersguidelinesforproperrelationshipsbetweenmarriedcouples.Theseagain
emphasize a common commitment to ethical conduct and spiritual ideals. Of
specialinteresttous,atatimewhenmanymarriagesendsosoonindivorce,is
the Buddha’s advice to the loving couple Nakulapitā and Nakulamātā—Text
IV,2(2)(b)—onhowthelovebetweenahusbandandhiswifecanbesustainedso
stronglythattheycanbereunitedintheirfuturelives.Thisdiscoursealsoshows
thatfarfromdemandingthathislaydisciplesspurnthedesiresoftheworld,the
Buddhawasreadytoshowthosestillundertheswayofworldlydesirehowto
obtaintheobjectsoftheirdesire.Theonerequirementhelaiddownwasthatthe
fulfillmentofdesireberegulatedbyethicalprinciples.
Nextcomeanumberoftextsdealingwithdifferentaspectsofhouseholdlife
unitedbyanemphasisonrightlivelihood.TwocharacteristicsoftheBuddha’s
injunctions to his lay followers regarding the pursuit of mundane happiness
standoutfromthesetexts.
First,inseeking“thegoodvisibleinthispresentlife,”thelayfollowershould
consistentlyadheretoprinciplesofrightconduct,especiallytothefiveprecepts
and the rules of right livelihood. Thus, for example, he stipulates that wealth
must be “acquired by energetic striving … righteous wealth righteously
gained”—Text IV,3. Again, he asks his lay followers to use the wealth they
obtain not only to gratify themselves but also to benefit their dependents and
others who live on charity, particularly virtuous ascetics and brahmins—Text
IV,4(2).
Second, the lay follower should not rest content with the mere pursuit of
temporal well-being and happiness but should also seek the well-being and
happiness pertaining to the future life. This is to be done by fostering those
qualitiesthatleadtoahappyrebirthandtheattainmentofNibbāna.Accordingto
TextsIV,3andIV,5,theprincipalvirtuesalayfollowershouldpossess,leading
to future welfare, are: (1) faith (in the Buddha as the Enlightened One), (2)
moraldiscipline(asunbrokenobservanceofthefiveprecepts),(3)generosity(as
applicationtocharity,giving,andsharing),and(4)wisdom(asinsightintothe
arising and passing away of phenomena). For Early Buddhism, the ideal
householderisnotmerelyadevoutsupporterofthemonasticorderbutanoble
person who has attained at least the first of the four stages of realization, the
fruitionofstream-entry(sotāpatti).
Finally,withsection6,wecometoaselectionoftextson“theCommunity.”I
usethiswordtoreferbroadlytoboththeSaṅgha,themonasticorder,andthe
civilsocietyinwhichanybranchofthemonasticordermustberooted.Fromthe
Nikāyas,itis clear thatwhilethe Buddhaprincipallyaimedat guidingpeople
towardmoralandspiritualprogress,hewasfullyawarethattheircapacityfor
moral and spiritual development depends upon the material conditions of the
society in which they live. He acutely realized that when peopleare mired in
povertyandoppressedbyhungerandwant,theywillfindithardtoholdtoa
pathofmoralrectitude.Thesheerpainofhunger,andtheneedtowardoffthe
elementsandprovidefortheirfamilies,willcompelthemtostooptotypesof
behaviortheywouldavoidifthey couldobtainfairemploymentandadequate
remuneration for their services. Thus he saw that the provision of economic
justiceisintegraltosocialharmonyandpoliticalstability.
The first two texts included here prescribe two sets of guidelines for the
monastic order. Both are excerpts from a long discourse the Buddha spoke
shortly after the death of Mahāvīra, the leader of the Jains.According to the
Nikāyas, following their leaders death, the Jain monastic order was already
beginning to split up, and the Buddha must have felt compelled to lay down
guidelinestoprotecthisownorderfromsharingthesamefateafterhispassing.
TextIV,6(1)enumeratessixqualitiesthatleadtoquarrelsanddisputes,which
themonksshouldbewaryofandstrivetoeliminatewhentheydiscoverthem
withinthemselves.Althoughtheseguidelinesarelaiddownforthemonks,they
caneasilybegivenawiderapplicationtoanyorganization,secularorreligious,
foritisthesamesixfactorsthatlieatthebottomofallconflicts.Thepositive
counterparttothissetofcautionaryguidelinesisTextIV,6(2),whichenumerates
“sixprinciplesofcordiality”thatleadtolove,respect,andharmonyamongthe
membersofthecommunity.Again,withappropriateadaptation,theseprinciples
—loving acts of body, speech, and mind; sharing of possessions; common
observance of precepts; and unity of views—can be given an extended
application beyond a monastic order to the wider community. The same sutta
providesmoredetailedguidelinesforpreservingharmonyinthemonasticorder
aftertheBuddha’sdeath,butthesedealwithaspectsofmonasticdisciplinetoo
specializedforthepresentanthology.
TextIV,6(3),alongexcerptfromtheAssalāyanaSutta,capturestheBuddha
indebatewithaprecociousbrahminpunditaboutthebrahmins’claimsonbehalf
ofthecastesystem.IntheBuddha’sagethecastesystemwasonlybeginningto
takeshapeinnortheastIndiaandhadnotyetspawnedthecountlesssubdivisions
andrigidregulationsthatweretomanacleIndiansocietythroughthecenturies.
Societywasdividedintofourbroadsocialclasses:thebrahmins,whoperformed
thepriestlyfunctionsprescribedintheVedas;thekhattiyas,thenobles,warriors,
and administrators; the vessas, the merchants and agriculturalists; and the
suddas,themenialsandserfs.Therewerealsothoseoutsidethepaleofthefour
main classes, who were regarded as even lower than the suddas. From the
Nikāyas it appears that the brahmins, while vested with authority in religious
matters,hadnot yetattained theunchallengeablehegemony theywere togain
aftertheappearanceofsuchworksastheLawsofManu,whichlaiddownthe
fixedrulesofthecastesystem.Theyhad,however,alreadyembarkedontheir
drivefordominationovertherestofIndiansocietyanddidsobypropagating
thethesisthatbrahminsarethehighestcaste,thedivinelyblessedoffspringof
Brahmāwhoarealonecapableofpurification.
Contrary to certain popular notions, the Buddha did not agitate for the
abolitionoftheIndianclasssystemandattempttoestablishaclass-lesssociety.
Within the Saṅgha, however, all caste distinctions were abrogated from the
momentofordination.Peoplefromanyofthefoursocialclasseswhowentforth
undertheBuddharenouncedtheirclasstitlesandprerogatives,becomingknown
simplyasdisciplesoftheSakyanson(thatis,oftheBuddha,whowasfromthe
Sakyanclan).WhenevertheBuddhaandhisdisciplesconfrontedthebrahmins’
claimtosuperiority,theyarguedvigorouslyagainstthem.Asourtextshows,the
Buddha maintained that all such claims were groundless. Purification, he
contended, was the result of conduct, not of birth, and was thus accessible to
those of all four castes. The Buddha even stripped the term “brahmin” of its
hereditary accretions, and hearkening back to its original connotation of holy
man,definedthetruebrahminasthearahant(seeMN98,notincludedinthis
anthology).
Thenexttwoselectionssuggestguidelinesforpoliticaladministration.During
theBuddha’stimetwodistinctformsofgovernmentprevailedamongthestates
ofnorthernIndiainwhichtheBuddhamovedandtaught,monarchicalkingdoms
andtribalrepublics.Asaspiritualteacher,theBuddhadidnotpreferonetypeof
governmenttotheother,nordidheactivelyinterfereinaffairsofstate.Buthis
followers included leaders from both types of state, and thus he occasionally
offeredthemguidanceintendedtoensurethattheywouldgoverntheirrealmsin
accordancewithethicalnorms.
The opening scene of the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, the narrative of the
Buddha’s last days—Text IV,6(4)—gives us a glimpse into this tumultuous
phase of Indian history when Magadha, the rising star among the northern
monarchies, was expanding in influence and absorbing its neighboring tribal
republics.In thepassage reproducedhere wesee KingAjātasattu, theruler of
Magadha, setting his sights on the Vajjian confederacy, the largest and best
organized of the tribal republics. When the sutta opens, he sends his chief
ministerto inquire from the Buddhawhether he has any chance of success in
waging war against the Vajjians. The Buddha questions Ānanda about seven
conditionsofsocialstabilitythathehadearliertaughttheVajjians,concluding
that“aslongastheykeeptothesesevenprinciples,aslongastheseprinciples
remaininforce,theVajjiansmaybeexpectedtoprosperandnotdecline.”He
then convenes a meeting of the monks and teaches them seven analogous
principlesofstabilityapplicabletothemonasticorder.
Since the eventual triumph of the monarchical type of government seemed
inevitable,theBuddhasoughttoestablishamodelofkingshipthatcouldcurb
thearbitraryexerciseofpowerandsubordinatethekingtoahigherauthority.He
didsobysettinguptheidealofthe“wheel-turningmonarch,”therighteousking
whorulesincompliancewiththeDhamma,theimpersonallawofrighteousness
(seeTextIV,1(1)).TheDhammathatheobeysistheethicalbasisforhisrule.
Symbolizedbythesacred wheel-treasure,theDhamma enables himtosubdue
withoutforceallthenationsoftheworldandestablishauniversalreignofpeace
andvirtuebasedonobservanceofthefiveprecepts—seeTextIV,6(5).
Thewheel-turningmonarchrulesforthewelfareandhappinessofhissubjects
and extends protection to all within his realm, even to the birds and beasts.
Amonghisdutiesistopreventcrimefromeruptinginhiskingdom,andtokeep
thekingdomsafe fromcrime he mustgive wealthtothose inneed, forinthe
viewoftheNikāyaspovertyisthebreedinggroundofcriminality.Thistheme,
mentioned among the duties of the wheel-turning monarch in TextIV,6(5), is
elaboratedinTextIV,6(6).Wehereseeawisechaplainadviseakingthatthe
correct way to end the plague of theft and brigandage in his realm is not by
imposingharsher punishmentsand stricterlaw enforcement,but by giving the
citizens the means to earn their living. Once the people enjoy a satisfactory
standardofliving,theywillloseallinterestinharmingothers,andthecountry
willenjoypeaceandtranquillity.
IV.THEHAPPINESSVISIBLEINTHISPRESENT
LIFE
1.UPHOLDINGTHEDHAMMAINSOCIETY
(1)TheKingoftheDhamma
The Blessed One said: “Monks, even a wheel-turning monarch, a just and
righteousking,doesnotgovernhisrealmwithoutaco-regent.”
Whenhehadspoken,acertainmonkaddressedtheBlessedOnethus:“But
who,venerablesir,istheco-regentofthewheel-turningmonarch,thejustand
righteousking?”
“It is the Dhamma, the law of righteousness, O monk,” replied the Blessed
One.
1
“Inthiscase,thewheel-turningmonarch,thejustandrighteousking,relying
onthe Dhamma, honoringthe Dhamma, esteemingand respecting it, with the
Dhamma as his standard, banner, and sovereign, provides lawful protection,
shelter, and safety for his own dependents. He provides lawful protection,
shelter, and safety for the khattiyas attending on him; for his army, for the
brahmins and householders, for the inhabitants of town and countryside, for
asceticsandbrahmins,forthebeastsandbirds.
“A wheel-turning monarch, a just and righteous king, who thus provides
lawfulprotection,shelter,andsafetyfor all, istheonewho rules byDhamma
only.Andthatrulecannotbeoverthrownbyanyhostilehumanbeing.
“Evenso,Omonk,theTathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne,
thejustandrighteouskingoftheDhamma,relyingontheDhamma,honoring
the Dhamma, esteeming and respecting it, with the Dhamma as his standard,
banner,andsovereign,provideslawfulprotection,shelter,andsafetyinregardto
actionbybody,speech,andmind.[Heteachesthus:]‘Suchbodilyactionshould
beundertakenandsuchshouldnotbeundertaken.Suchverbalactionshouldbe
undertaken and such should not be undertaken. Such mental action should be
undertakenandsuchshouldnotbeundertaken.’
“TheTathāgata,theArahant,theFullyEnlightenedOne,thejustandrighteous
kingoftheDhamma,whothusprovideslawfulprotection,shelter,andsafetyin
regard to action by body, speech, and mind, is the one who turns the
incomparablewheeloftheDhammainaccordancewiththeDhammaonly.And
thatwheeloftheDhammacannotbeturnedbackbyanyasceticorbrahmin,by
anydevaorMāraorBrahmāorbyanyoneintheworld.”
2
(AN3:14;I109–10)
(2)WorshippingtheSixDirections
1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at
Rājagaha,attheBambooGrove,intheSquirrels’Sanctuary.ThenSigālakathe
householders son,havinggot upearlyand gone outof Rājagaha, waspaying
homage, with wet clothes and hair and with joined palms, to the different
directions:totheeast,thesouth,thewest,thenorth,thenadir,andthezenith.
2. And the Blessed One, having risen early and dressed, took his robe and
bowlandwenttoRājagahaforalms.AndseeingSigālakapayinghomagetothe
differentdirections,hesaid:“Householdersson,whyhaveyougotupearlyto
payhomagetothedifferentdirections?”
“Venerablesir,myfather,whenhewasdying,toldmetodoso.Andso,outof
respectformyfatherswords,whichIrevere,honor,andholdsacred,Ihavegot
upearlytopayhomageinthiswaytothesixdirections.”
“But,householders son,that is notthe right way to pay homage tothe six
directionsaccordingtotheNobleOne’sdiscipline.”
“Well, venerable sir, how should one pay homage to the six directions
accordingtotheNobleOne’sdiscipline?ItwouldbegoodiftheBlessedOne
wouldteachmetheproperwaytopayhomagetothesixdirectionsaccordingto
theNobleOne’sdiscipline.”
“Thenlistenandattendcarefully,householdersson,Iwillspeak.”
“Yes,venerablesir,”Sigālakasaid.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:...
27. “And how, householders son, does the noble disciple protect the six
directions? These six things are to be regarded as the six directions. The east
denotesmotherandfather.Thesouth denotesteachers.Thewestdenoteswife
and children. The north denotes friends and companions. The nadir denotes
servants,workers,andhelpers.Thezenithdenotesasceticsandbrahmins.
28. “There are five ways in which a son should ministerto his mother and
father as the eastern direction. [He should think:] ‘Having been supported by
them,Iwillsupportthem.Iwillperformtheirdutiesforthem.Iwillkeepupthe
familytradition.Iwillbeworthyofmyheritage.Aftermyparents’deathsIwill
distributegiftsontheirbehalf.’Andtherearefivewaysinwhichtheparents,so
ministered to by their son as the eastern direction, will reciprocate: they will
restrainhim from evil, support himin doing good, teach him someskill, find
himasuitablewife,and,induetime,handoverhisinheritancetohim.Inthis
waytheeasterndirectioniscovered,makingitatpeaceandfreefromfear.
29.“Therearefivewaysinwhichpupilsshouldministertotheirteachersas
the southern direction: by rising to greet them, by waiting on them, by being
attentive,byservingthem,bymasteringtheskillstheyteach.Andtherearefive
waysinwhichtheirteachers,thusministeredtobytheirpupilsasthesouthern
direction,willreciprocate:theywillgivethoroughinstruction,makesurethey
have grasped what they should have duly grasped, give them a thorough
grounding in all skills, recommend them to their friends and colleagues, and
providethemwithsecurityinalldirections.Inthiswaythesoutherndirectionis
covered,makingitatpeaceandfreefromfear.
30.“Therearefivewaysinwhichahusbandshouldministertohiswifeasthe
western direction: by honoring her, by not disparaging her, by not being
unfaithfultoher,bygivingauthoritytoher,byprovidingherwithadornments.
Andtherearefivewaysinwhichawife,thusministeredtobyherhusbandas
the western direction, will reciprocate: by properly organizing her work, by
beingkindtotheservants,bynotbeingunfaithful,byprotectingstores,andby
beingskillfulanddiligentinallshehastodo.Inthiswaythewesterndirection
iscovered,makingitatpeaceandfreefromfear.
31.“Therearefivewaysinwhichamanshouldministertohisfriendsand
companionsasthenortherndirection:bygifts,bykindlywords,bylookingafter
theirwelfare,bytreatingthemlikehimself,andbykeepinghisword.Andthere
arefivewaysinwhichfriendsandcompanions,thusministeredtobyamanas
the northern direction, will reciprocate: by looking after him when he is
inattentive, by looking after his property when he is inattentive, by being a
refuge when he is afraid, by not deserting him when he is in trouble, and by
showingconcernforhischildren.Inthiswaythenortherndirectioniscovered,
makingitatpeaceandfreefromfear.
32.“Therearefivewaysinwhichamastershouldministertohisservantsand
workers as the nadir: by arranging their work according to their strength, by
supplyingthemwithfoodandwages,bylookingafterthemwhentheyareill,by
sharingspecialdelicacieswiththem,andbylettingthemoffworkattheright
time.Andtherearefivewaysinwhichservantsandworkers,thusministeredto
bytheirmasterasthenadir,willreciprocate:theywillgetupbeforehim,goto
bed after him, take only what they are given, do their work properly, and be
bearersofhispraiseandgoodrepute.Inthiswaythenadiriscovered,makingit
atpeaceandfreefromfear.
33. “There are five ways in which a man should minister to ascetics and
brahmins as the zenith: by kindness in bodily deed, speech, and thought, by
keeping open house for them, and by supplying their bodily needs. And the
asceticsandbrahmins,thusministeredtobyhimasthezenith,willreciprocate
in five ways: they will restrain him from evil, encourage him to do good, be
benevolentlycompassionatetowardhim,teachhimwhathehasnotheard,and
pointouttohimthewaytoheaven.Inthiswaythezenithiscovered,makingit
atpeaceandfreefromfear.”
(fromDN31:SigālakaSutta;III180–81,187–91)
2.THEFAMILY
(1)ParentsandChildren
(a)RespectforParents
“Monks, those families dwell with Brahmā where at home the parents are
respectedbytheirchildren.Thosefamiliesdwellwiththeancientteacherswhere
athometheparentsarerespectedbytheirchildren.Thosefamiliesdwellwith
the ancient deities where at home the parents are respected by the children.
Thosefamiliesdwellwiththeholyoneswhereathometheparentsarerespected
bytheirchildren.
“‘Brahmā,’monks,isatermforfatherandmother.‘Theancientteachers’isa
termforfatherandmother.‘Theancientdeities’isatermforfatherandmother.
‘Theholyones’isatermforfatherandmother.Andwhy?Parentsareofgreat
helptotheirchildren;theybringthemup,feedthem,andshowthemtheworld.”
(AN4:63;II70)
(b)RepayingOne’sParents
“Monks,I declare that there aretwo persons onecan never repay. Whattwo?
One’smotherandfather.
“Evenifoneshouldcarryaboutone’smotherononeshoulderandone’sfather
ontheother,andwhiledoingsoshouldliveahundredyears,reachtheageofa
hundredyears;andifoneshouldattendtothembyanointingthemwithbalms,
bymassaging,bathing,andrubbingtheirlimbs,andtheyshouldevenvoidtheir
excrementsthere—evenbythatwouldonenotdoenoughforone’sparents,nor
would one repay them. Even if one were to establish one’s parents as the
supremelordsandrulersoverthisearthsorichintheseventreasures,onewould
notdoenoughforthem,norwouldonerepaythem.Forwhatreason?Parentsare
ofgreathelptotheirchildren;theybringthemup,feedthem,andshowthemthe
world.
“But, monks, one who encourages his unbelieving parents, settles and
establishes them in faith; who encourages his immoral parents, settles and
establishestheminmoraldiscipline;whoencourageshisstingyparents,settles
andestablishesthemingenerosity;whoencourageshisignorantparents,settles
and establishes them in wisdom—such a one, monks, does enough for his
parents:herepaysthemandmorethanrepaysthemforwhattheyhavedone.”
(AN2:iv,2;I61–62)
(2)HusbandsandWives
(a)DifferentKindsofMarriages
On one occasion the Blessed One was traveling along the highway between
Madhurā and Verañjā, and a number of householders and their wives were
travelingalongthesameroad.ThentheBlessedOnelefttheroadandsatdown
onaseatatthefootofatree.ThehouseholdersandtheirwivessawtheBlessed
One sitting there and approached him. Having paid homage to him, they sat
downtooneside,andtheBlessedOnethensaidtothem:
“Householders,therearethesefourkindsofmarriages.Whatfour?Awretch
livestogetherwithawretch;awretchlivestogetherwithagoddess;agodlives
togetherwithawretch;agodlivestogetherwithagoddess.
“Andhowdoesawretchlivetogetherwithawretch?Here,householders,the
husband is one who destroys life, takes what is not given, engages in sexual
misconduct, speaks falsely, and indulges in wines, liquor, and intoxicants, the
basisfornegligence;heisimmoral,ofbadcharacter;hedwellsathomewitha
heart obsessed by the stain of stinginess; he abuses and reviles ascetics and
brahmins.Andhiswifeisexactlythesameinallrespects.Itisinsuchawaythat
awretchlivestogetherwithawretch.
“Andhowdoesawretchlivetogetherwithagoddess?Here,householders,the
husband is one who destroys life … who abuses and reviles ascetics and
brahmins.Buthiswifeisonewhoabstainsfromthedestructionoflife...from
wines,liquor,andintoxicants;sheisvirtuous,ofgoodcharacter;shedwellsat
homewithaheartfreefromthestainofstinginess;shedoesnotabuseorrevile
ascetics and brahmins. It is in such a way that a wretch lives together with a
goddess.
“And how does a god live together with a wretch? Here, householders, the
husbandisonewhoabstainsfromthedestructionoflife...whodoesnotabuse
or revile ascetics and brahmins. But his wife is one who destroys life ... who
abuses and reviles ascetics and brahmins. It is in such a way that a god lives
togetherwithawretch.
“Andhowdoesagodlivetogetherwithagoddess?Here,householders,the
husbandisonewhoabstainsfromthedestructionoflife…fromwines,liquor,
andintoxicants;heisvirtuous,ofgoodcharacter;hedwellsathomewithaheart
free from the stain of stinginess; he does not abuse or revile ascetics and
brahmins.Andhiswifeisexactlythesameinallrespects.Itisinsuchawaythat
agodlivestogetherwithagoddess.
“These,householders,arethefourkindsofmarriages.”
(AN4:53;II57–59)
(b)HowtoBeUnitedinFutureLives
OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingamongtheBhaggapeople,near
Suṃsumāragiri, in the Deer Park of the Bhesakalā Grove. One morning the
BlessedOnedressed,tookhisupperrobeandbowl,andwenttothedwellingof
the householder Nakulapitā.
3
Having arrived there, he sat down on the seat
prepared for him. Then the householder Nakulapitā and the housewife
NakulamātāapproachedtheBlessedOneand,afterpayinghomagetohim,sat
down to one side. So seated, the householder Nakulapitā said to the Blessed
One:
“Venerablesir,eversincetheyounghousewifeNakulamātāwasbroughthome
tomewhenItoowasstillyoung,Iamnotawareofhavingwrongedherevenin
mythoughts,stilllessinmydeeds.Ourwishistobeinoneanotherssightso
longasthislifelastsandinthefuturelifeaswell.”
ThenNakulamātāthehousewifeaddressedtheBlessedOnethus:“Venerable
sir,eversinceIwastakentothehomeofmyyounghusbandNakulapitā,while
beingayounggirlmyself,Iamnotawareofhavingwrongedhimeveninmy
thoughts,stilllessinmydeeds.Ourwishistobeinoneanotherssightsolong
asthislifelastsandinthefuturelifeaswell.”
ThentheBlessedOnespokethus:“If,householders,bothwifeandhusband
wishtobeinoneanotherssightsolongasthislifelastsandinthefuturelifeas
well, they should have the same faith, the same moral discipline, the same
generosity,thesamewisdom;thentheywillbeinoneanotherssightsolongas
thislifelastsandinthefuturelifeaswell.”
Whenbotharefaithfulandgenerous,
Self-restrained,ofrighteousliving,
Theycometogetherashusbandandwife
Fullofloveforeachother.
Manyblessingscometheirway,
Theydwelltogetherinhappiness,
Theirenemiesareleftdejected,
Whenbothareequalinvirtue.
HavinglivedbyDhammainthisworld,
Thesameinvirtueandobservance,
Theyrejoiceafterdeathinthedeva-world,
Enjoyingabundanthappiness.
(AN4:55;II61–62)
(c)SevenKindsofWives
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Sāvatthī in Jeta’s Grove,
Anāthapiṇḍika’s monastery. In the morning the Blessed One dressed, took his
bowlandrobe,andwenttoAnāthapiṇḍika’shouse,wherehesatdowninaseat
preparedforhim.Onthatoccasionpeopleinthehouseweremakinganuproar
andaracket.ThehouseholderAnāthapiṇḍikaapproachedtheBlessedOne,paid
homagetohim,andsatdowntooneside.
4
TheBlessedOnethensaidtohim:
“Whyarepeopleinyourhousemakingthisuproarandracket,householder?One
wouldthinktheywerefishermenmakingahauloffish.”
“That,venerablesir,isourdaughter-in-lawSujātā.Sheisrichandhasbeen
broughtherefromarichfamily.Shedoesnotobeyherfather-in-lawandmother-
in-law,norherhusband.Shedoesnotevenhonor,respect,esteem,andvenerate
theBlessedOne.”
Then the Blessed One called the daughter-in-law Sujātā, saying, “Come,
Sujātā.”
“Yes, venerable sir,” she replied, and she went to the Blessed One, paid
homage to him, and sat down to one side. The Blessed One then said to her:
“Therearethesesevenkindsofwives,Sujātā.Whatseven?Onelikeaslayer,
onelikeathief,onelikeatyrant,onelikeamother,onelikeasister,onelikea
friend,andonelikeahandmaid.Thesearethesevenkindsofwives.Nowwhich
ofthesesevenareyou?”
“I do not understand in detail the meaning of the Blessed One’s brief
statement.Itwouldbegood,venerablesir,iftheBlessedOnewouldteachme
theDhammainsuchawaythatImightunderstandthemeaningindetail.”
“Thenlisten,Sujātā,andattendcarefully.Iwillspeak.”
“Yes,venerablesir,”Sujātāreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
“Withhatefulmind,coldandheartless,
Lustingforothers,despisingherhusband;
Whoseekstokilltheonewhoboughther—
Suchawifeiscalledaslayer.
“Whenherhusbandacquireswealth
Byhiscraftortradeorfarmwork,
Shetriestofilchalittleforherself—
Suchawifeiscalledathief.
“Theslothfulglutton,bentonidling,
Harsh,fierce,roughinspeech,
Awomanwhobulliesherownsupporter—
Suchawifeiscalledatyrant.
“Onewhoisalwayshelpfulandkind,
Whoguardsherhusbandasamotherherson,
Whocarefullyprotectsthewealthheearns—
Suchawifeiscalledamother.
“Shewhoholdsherhusbandinhighregard
Asyoungersisterholdstheelderborn,
Whohumblysubmitstoherhusband’swill—
Suchawifeiscalledasister.
“Onewhorejoicesatherhusband’ssight
Asonefriendmightwelcomeanother,
Wellraised,virtuous,devoted—
Suchawifeiscalledafriend.
“Onewithoutanger,afraidofpunishment,
Whobearswithherhusbandfreeofhate,
Whohumblysubmitstoherhusband’swill—
Suchawifeiscalledahandmaid.
5
“Thetypesofwivesherecalledaslayer,
Athief,andthewifelikeatyrant,
Thesekindsofwives,withthebody’sbreakup,
Willbereborndeepinhell.
“Butwiveslikemother,sister,friend,
Andthewifecalledahandmaid,
Steadyinvirtue,longrestrained,
Withthebody’sbreakupgotoheaven.
“These,Sujātā,arethesevenkindsofwives.Nowwhichoftheseareyou?”
“Beginningtoday,venerablesir,youshouldconsidermeawifewhoislikea
handmaid.”
(AN7:59;IV91–94)
3.PRESENTWELFARE,FUTUREWELFARE
OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingamongtheKoliyanswherethere
was a market town of the Koliyans named Kakkarapatta. Then the Koliyan
familymanDīghajānuapproachedtheBlessedOne,paidhomagetohim,andsat
downtooneside.Soseated,hesaidtotheBlessedOne:
“Venerable sir, we are laypeople who enjoy sensual pleasures, dwelling at
home in a bed crowded with children, enjoying fine sandalwood, wearing
garlands,scents,andunguents,acceptinggoldandsilver.LettheBlessedOne
teachthe Dhammato us in a waythat willlead toour welfare andhappiness
bothinthepresentlifeandinthefuturelifeaswell.”
“Thereare,Byagghapajja,fourthingsthatleadtothewelfareandhappinessof
a family man in this very life. What four? The accomplishment of persistent
effort,theaccomplishmentofprotection,goodfriendship,andbalancedliving.
“And what is the accomplishment of persistent effort? Here, Byagghapajja,
whatevermaybethemeansbywhichafamilymanearnshisliving—whetherby
farming,trade,cattleraising,archeryorcivilservice,orbysomeothercraft—he
isskillfulanddiligent;heinvestigatestheappropriatemeans,andisabletoact
andarrangeeverythingproperly.Thisiscalledtheaccomplishmentofpersistent
effort.
“Andwhatistheaccomplishmentofprotection?Here,Byagghapajja,afamily
mansetsupprotectionandguardoverthewealthacquiredbyenergeticstriving,
amassedbythestrengthofhisarms,earnedbythesweatofhisbrow,righteous
wealthrighteouslygained,thinking:‘HowcanIpreventkingsandbanditsfrom
takingthisaway,firefromburningit,floodsfromsweepingitoff,andunloved
heirsfromtakingit?’Thisiscalledtheaccomplishmentofprotection.
“And what is good friendship? Here, Byagghapajja, in whatever village or
town a family man dwells, he associates with householders or their sons,
whetheryoung or old, who are of mature virtue, accomplished in faith, moral
discipline, generosity, and wisdom; he converses with them and engages in
discussionswiththem.Heemulatestheminregardtotheiraccomplishmentin
faith,moraldiscipline,generosity,andwisdom.Thisiscalledgoodfriendship.
“Andwhatisbalancedliving?Here,Byagghapajja,afamilymanknowshis
income and expenditures and leads a balanced life, neither extravagant nor
miserly,sothathisincomeexceedshisexpendituresratherthanthereverse.Just
asagoldsmithorhisapprentice,holdingupascale,knows,‘Bysomuchithas
dippeddown,bysomuchithastiltedup,’soafamilymanleadsabalancedlife.
“The wealth thus amassed has four sources of dissipation: womanizing,
drunkenness, gambling, and evil friendship. Just as in the case of a tank with
fourinletsandoutlets,ifoneshouldclosetheinletsandopentheoutlets,and
therewouldnotbeadequate rainfall, adecreaseratherthanan increaseofthe
water could be expected in the tank, so these four things bring about the
dissipationofamassedwealth.
“Similarly, there are four sources for the increase of amassed wealth:
abstinencefromwomanizing,fromdrunkenness,fromgambling,andfromevil
friendship.Justasinthecaseofatankwithfourinletsandoutlets,ifoneshould
openthe inlets and close the outlets, and there would be adequate rainfall, an
increaserather than a decrease of the water could be expected in the tank, so
thesefourthingsbringabouttheincreaseofamassedwealth.
“These four things, Byagghapajja, lead to a family man’s welfare and
happinessinthepresentlife.
“Fourotherthingsleadtoafamilyman’swelfareandhappinessinthefuture
life. What four? Accomplishment in faith, moral discipline, generosity, and
wisdom.
“And how is a family man accomplished in faith? Here, Byagghapajja, a
familymanhasfaith;heplacesfaithintheenlightenmentoftheTathāgata:‘So
the Blessed One is an arahant, perfectly enlightened, accomplished in true
knowledgeandconduct,fortunate,knoweroftheworld,unsurpassedleaderof
persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the
BlessedOne.’Inthiswayafamilymanisaccomplishedinfaith.
“And how is a family man accomplished in moral discipline? Here,
Byagghapajja,afamilymanabstainsfromthedestructionoflife,fromstealing,
from sexual misconduct, from false speech, and from wines, liquors, and
intoxicants,thebasisfornegligence.Inthiswayafamilymanisaccomplished
inmoraldiscipline.
“Andhowisafamilymanaccomplishedingenerosity?Here,Byagghapajja,a
familymandwellsathomewithaminddevoidofthestainofstinginess,freely
generous, open-handed, delighting in relinquishment, one devoted to charity,
delightingingivingandsharing.Inthiswayafamilymanisaccomplishedin
generosity.
“Andhowisafamilymanaccomplishedinwisdom?Here,Byagghapajja,a
familymanpossessesthewisdomthatseesintothearisingandpassingawayof
phenomena,thatisnobleandpenetrativeandleadstothecompletedestruction
ofsuffering.Inthiswayafamilymanisaccomplishedinwisdom.
“These four things, Byagghapajja, lead to a family man’s welfare and
happinessinthefuturelife.”
(AN8:54;IV281–85)
4.RIGHTLIVELIHOOD
(1)AvoidingWrongLivelihood
“Thesefivetrades,Omonks,shouldnotbetakenupbyalayfollower:tradingin
weapons,tradinginlivingbeings,tradinginmeat,tradinginintoxicants,trading
inpoison.”
(AN5:177;III208)
(2)TheProperUseofWealth
[TheBlessedOneaddressedthehouseholderAnāthapiṇḍika:]“Withthewealth
acquiredbyenergeticstriving,amassedbythestrengthofhisarms,earnedby
the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth righteously gained, the noble disciple
undertakesfourworthydeeds.Whatfour?
“With the wealth thus gained he makes himself happy and pleased and
properlymaintainshimselfinhappiness;hemakeshisparentshappyandpleased
andproperlymaintainstheminhappiness;hemakeshiswifeandchildren,his
slaves,workers,andservantshappyandpleasedandproperlymaintainsthemin
happiness;hemakeshisfriendsandcolleagueshappyandpleasedandproperly
maintainstheminhappiness.Thisisthefirstcaseofwealthgonetogooduse,
fruitfullyappliedandusedforaworthycause.
“Further,householder,withthewealththusgainedthenobledisciplemakes
provisionsagainstthelossesthatmightariseonaccountoffireandfloods,kings
andbanditsandunlovedheirs;hemakeshimselfsecureagainstthem.Thisisthe
secondcaseofwealthgonetogooduse.…
“Further,householder,withthewealththusgainedthenobledisciplemakes
thefivekindsofofferings:torelatives,guests,ancestors,theking,andthedevas.
Thisisthethirdcaseofwealthgonetogooduse.…
“Further, householder, with the wealth thus gained the noble disciple
establishesaloftyofferingofalmstothoseasceticsandbrahminswhorefrain
fromvanityandnegligence,whoaresettledinpatienceandgentleness,whoare
devotedtotamingthemselves,tocalmingthemselves,andtoattainingNibbāna
—anofferingthatisheavenly,resultinginhappiness,conducivetoheaven.This
isthefourthcaseofwealthgonetogooduse,fruitfullyemployedandusedfora
worthycause.
“These, householder, are the four worthy deeds that the noble disciple
undertakes with the wealth acquired by energetic striving, amassed by the
strength of his arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth
righteouslygained.
“Foranyonewhosewealthisexpendedonotherthingsapartfromthesefour
worthydeeds,thatwealthissaidtohavegonetowaste,tohavebeensquandered
and used frivolously. But for anyone whose wealth is expended on these four
worthy deeds, that wealth is said to have gone to good use, to have been
fruitfullyemployedandusedforaworthycause.”
(AN4:61;II65–68)
(3)AFamilyMan’sHappiness
The Blessed One said to the householder Anāthapiṇḍika: “There are,
householder, these four kinds of happiness which may be achieved by a
laypersonwhoenjoyssensualpleasures,dependingontimeandoccasion.What
four?Thehappinessofpossession,thehappinessofenjoyment,thehappinessof
freedomfromdebt,andthehappinessofblamelessness.
“Andwhat,householder,isthehappinessofpossession?Here,afamilyman
possesseswealthacquiredbyenergeticstriving,amassedbythestrengthofhis
arms, earned by the sweat of his brow, righteous wealth righteously gained.
Whenhethinks,‘Ipossesswealthacquiredbyenergeticstriving…righteously
gained,’ he experiences happiness and joy. This is called the happiness of
possession.
“Andwhat,householder,isthehappinessofenjoyment?Here,withthewealth
acquiredbyenergeticstriving,amassedbythestrengthofhisarms,earnedby
thesweatofhisbrow,righteouswealthrighteouslygained,afamilymanenjoys
his wealth and does meritorious deeds. When he thinks, ‘With the wealth
acquiredbyenergeticstriving…righteouslygained,Ienjoymywealthanddo
meritorious deeds,’ he experiences happiness and joy. This is called the
happinessofenjoyment.
“And what, householder, is the happiness of freedom from debt? Here, a
family man is not indebted to anyone to any degree, whether small or great.
Whenhethinks,‘Iamnotindebtedtoanyonetoanydegree,whethersmallor
great,’heexperienceshappinessandjoy.Thisiscalledthehappinessoffreedom
fromdebt.
“And what, householder, is the happiness of blamelessness? Here,
householder, a noble disciple is endowed with blameless conduct of body,
speech,andmind. When hethinks, ‘I amendowedwith blamelessconductof
body, speech, and mind,’ he experiences happiness and joy. This is called the
happinessofblamelessness.
“These, householder, are the four kinds of happiness that a layperson who
enjoyssensualpleasuresmayachieve,dependingontimeandoccasion.”
(AN4:62;II69–70)
5.THEWOMANOFTHEHOME
OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingatSāvatthīintheEasternPark,
intheMansionofMigāra’sMother.ThenVisākhā,Migāra’smother,approached
theBlessedOne,paidhomagetohim,andsatdowntooneside.
6
TheBlessed
Onethensaidtoher:
“Visākhā,whenawomanpossessesfourqualitiessheisheadingforvictoryin
thepresentworldandissuccessfulinthisworld.Whatfour?
“Here,Visākhā,awomaniscapableatherwork;shemanagesherdomestic
help;shebehavesinawaythatisagreeabletoherhusband;andshesafeguards
hisearnings.
“Andhowisawomancapableatherwork?Here,Visākhā,sheisskillfuland
diligent in regard to her husband’s household chores, whether with wool or
cotton; she investigates the appropriate means and is able to act and arrange
everythingproperly.Inthiswayawomaniscapableatherwork.
“Andhowisawomanonewhomanagesthedomestichelp?Here,Visākhā,in
regard to her husband’s domestic helpers—slaves, servants, or workers—she
knows by direct inspection what they have done and failed to do; she knows
whentheyaresickandhealthy;andshedistributestoeachtheappropriateshare
offood.Inthiswayawomanmanagesthedomestichelp.
“Andhowdoesawomanbehaveinawaythatisagreeabletoherhusband?
Here,Visākhā,awomanwouldnotcommitanymisdeedthatherhusbandwould
considerdisagreeable,evenatthecostofherlife.Inthiswayawomanbehaves
inawaythatisagreeabletoherhusband.
“Andhowdoes awomansafeguard her husband’searnings? Here,Visākhā,
whateverherhusbandbringshome—whethermoneyorgrain,silverorgold—
she succeeds in protecting and guarding it, and she is not a spendthrift, thief,
wastrel, or squanderer of his wealth. In this way a woman safeguards her
husband’searnings.
“When,Visākhā,awomanpossessesthesefourqualities,sheisheadingfor
victory in the present world and is successful in this world. But when she
possessesfourotherqualities,sheisheadingforvictoryintheotherworldandis
successfulinregardtotheotherworld.Whatfour?
“Here, Visākhā, a woman is accomplished in faith, moral discipline,
generosity,andwisdom.
“And how is a woman accomplished in faith? Here, Visākhā, a woman has
faith;sheplacesfaithintheenlightenmentoftheTathāgatathus:‘SotheBlessed
One is an arahant ... [as in Text IV,3] … teacher of devas and humans, the
Enlightened One, the Blessed One.’ In this way a woman is accomplished in
faith.
“And how is a woman accomplished in moral discipline? Here, Visākhā, a
woman abstains from the destruction of life, from stealing, from sexual
misconduct, from false speech, and from wines, liquors, and intoxicants, the
basisfornegligence.Inthiswayawomanisaccomplishedinmoraldiscipline.
“Andhowisawomanaccomplishedingenerosity?Here,Visākhā,awoman
dwellsathomewithaminddevoidofthestainofstinginess,freelygenerous,
open-handed,delightinginrelinquishment,onedevotedtocharity,delightingin
givingandsharing.Inthiswayawomanisaccomplishedingenerosity.
“And how is a woman accomplished in wisdom? Here, Visākhā, a woman
possessesthewisdomthatseesintothearisingandpassingawayofphenomena,
thatisnobleandpenetrativeandleadstothecompletedestructionofsuffering.
“Whenawomanpossessesthesefourqualities,sheisheadingforvictoryin
theotherworldandissuccessfulinregardtotheotherworld.”
(AN8:49;IV269–71)
6.THECOMMUNITY
(1)SixRootsofDispute
6.“Thereare,Ānanda,thesesixrootsofdisputes.Whatsix?Here,Ānanda,a
monkisangryandresentful.Suchamonkdwellswithoutrespectanddeference
toward the Teacher, the Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, and he does not fulfill the
training.AmonkwhodwellswithoutrespectanddeferencetowardtheTeacher,
the Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, and who does not fulfill the training, creates a
disputeintheSaṅgha,whichwouldbefortheharmandunhappinessofmany,
fortheloss,harm,andsufferingofdevasandhumans.Nowifyouseeanysuch
rootofdisputeeitherinyourselvesorexternally,youshouldstrivetoabandon
thatsameevilrootofdispute.Andifyoudonotseeanysuchrootofdispute
either in yourselves or externally, you should practice in such a way that that
same evil root of dispute does not erupt in the future. Thus there is the
abandoningofthatevilrootofdispute;thusthereisthenon-eruptionofthatevil
rootofdisputeinthefuture.
7–11.“Again,amonkiscontemptuousandinsolent...enviousandniggardly
…deceitfulandfraudulent…hasevilwishesandwrongview…adherestohis
ownviews,holdsontothemtenaciously,andrelinquishesthemwithdifficulty.
Such a monk dwells without respect and deference toward the Teacher, the
Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, and he does not fulfill the training. A monk who
dwellswithoutrespectanddeferencetowardtheTeacher,theDhamma,andthe
Saṅgha,andwhodoesnot fulfillthetraining,createsadispute intheSaṅgha,
whichwouldbefortheharmandunhappinessofmany,fortheloss,harm,and
sufferingofdevasandhumans.Nowifyouseeanysuchrootofdisputeeitherin
yourselves or externally, you should strive to abandon that same evil root of
dispute.Andifyoudonotseeanysuchrootofdisputeeitherinyourselvesor
externally,youshouldpracticeinsuchawaythatthatsameevilrootofdispute
does not erupt in the future. Thus there isthe abandoning ofthat evil rootof
dispute;thusthereisthenon-eruptionofthatevilrootofdisputeinthefuture.
Thesearethesixrootsofdispute.”
(fromMN104:SāmagāmaSutta;II245–47)
(2)SixPrinciplesofCordiality
21. “Ānanda, there are these six principles of cordiality that create love and
respect,andconducetocohesion,nondispute,concord,andunity.Whatarethe
six?
“Here a monk maintains bodily acts of loving-kindness both in public and in
privatetowardhiscompanionsintheholylife.Thisisaprincipleofcordiality
that creates love and respect, and conduces to cohesion, nondispute, concord,
andunity.
“Again,amonkmaintainsverbalactsofloving-kindnessbothinpublicandin
private toward his companions in the holy life. This too is a principle of
cordialitythatcreatesloveandrespect,andconducesto…unity.
“Again,amonkmaintainsmentalactsofloving-kindnessbothinpublicand
in private toward his companions in the holy life. This too is a principle of
cordialitythatcreatesloveandrespect,andconducesto…unity.
“Again,amonkenjoysthingsincommonwithhisvirtuouscompanionsinthe
holylife;withoutmakingreservations,heshareswiththemanyrighteousgain
thathasbeenobtainedinarighteousway,includingeventhemerecontentofhis
almsbowl.Thistooisaprincipleofcordialitythatcreatesloveandrespect,and
conducesto…unity.
“Again,amonkdwellsbothinpublicandinprivatepossessingincommon
with his companions in the holy life those virtues that are unbroken, untorn,
unblemished, unmottled, freeing, praised by the wise, ungrasped, leading to
concentration.Thistooisaprincipleofcordialitythatcreatesloveandrespect
andconducesto…unity.
“Again,amonkdwellsbothinpublicandinprivatepossessingincommon
withhiscompanionsintheholylifethatviewthatisnobleandemancipating,
andleadstheonewhopracticesinaccordancewithittothecompletedestruction
ofsuffering.Thistoois aprincipleof cordialitythat creates loveand respect,
andconducestocohesion,tonondispute,toconcord,andtounity.
“These are the six principles of cordiality that create love and respect, and
conducetocohesion,tonondispute,toconcord,andtounity.
(fromMN104:SāmagāmaSutta;II250–51)
(3)PurificationIsforAllFourCastes
1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatSāvatthīin
Jeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’sPark.
2. Now at that time five hundred brahmins from diverse provinces were
staying at Sāvatthī for some business or other. Then those brahmins thought:
“ThisasceticGotamadescribespurificationforallthefourcastes.Whoisthere
abletodisputewithhimaboutthisassertion?”
3.NowonthatoccasionabrahminstudentnamedAssalāyanawasstayingat
Sāvatthī.Young,shaven-headed,sixteenyearsold,hewasamasterofthethree
Vedas with their vocabularies, liturgy, phonology, and etymology, and the
histories as a fifth; skilled in philology and grammar, he was fully versed in
naturalphilosophyandinthemarksofagreatman.Sothebrahminsthoughthe
wouldbeabletodebatewiththeBlessedOne.
4. They went to the brahmin studentAssalāyana and said to him: “Master
Assalāyana,thisasceticGotamadescribespurificationforallthefourcastes.Let
Master Assalāyana come and dispute with the ascetic Gotama about this
assertion.”
Whenthiswassaid,thebrahminstudentAssalāyanareplied:“Sirs,theascetic
GotamaisonewhospeakstheDhamma.NowthosewhospeaktheDhammaare
difficult to dispute with. I cannot dispute with the ascetic Gotama about this
assertion.”
Asecondtimeandathirdtimethebrahminsurgedhimtogo.Asecondtime
thebrahminstudentAssalāyanarefused,butafterthethirdurgingheconsented.
5.ThenthebrahminstudentAssalāyanawentwithalargenumberofbrahmins
totheBlessedOneandexchangedgreetingswithhim.Whenthiscourteousand
amiabletalkwasfinished,hesatdownatonesideandsaidtotheBlessedOne:
“MasterGotama,thebrahminssaythus:‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste,those
ofanyothercasteareinferior;brahminsarethefairestcaste,thoseofanyother
castearedark;onlybrahminsarepurified,notnon-brahmins;brahminsaloneare
the sons of Brahmā, the offspring of Brahmā, born of his mouth, born of
Brahmā,createdbyBrahmā,heirsofBrahmā.’WhatdoesMasterGotamasay
aboutthat?”
“Now, Assalāyana, the brahmin women are seen having their periods,
becomingpregnant,givingbirth,andnursing.
7
Andyetthosebrahmins,though
bornfromthewomb,saythus:‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...brahminsalone
are the sons of Brahmā, the offspring of Brahmā, born of his mouth, born of
Brahmā,createdbyBrahmā,heirsofBrahmā.’”
6. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:
‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...heirsofBrahmā.’”
“Whatdoyouthink,Assalāyana?HaveyouheardthatinYonaandKamboja
8
andinotheroutlandcountriesthereareonlytwocastes,mastersandslaves,and
thatmastersbecomeslavesandslavesbecomemasters?”
“SoIhaveheard,sir.”
“Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of what
[authority]dothebrahminsinthiscasesaythus:‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste
...heirsofBrahmā’?”
7. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:
‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...heirsofBrahmā.’”
“What do you think, Assalāyana? Suppose a khattiya were to kill living
beings,takewhatisnotgiven,commitsexualmisconduct,speakfalsely,speak
maliciously,speakharshly,gossip,becovetous,haveamindofillwill,andhold
wrongview.Withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,wouldonlyhebereborn
inastateofmisery,inabaddestination,inthelowerworld,inhell—andnota
brahmin?Supposeamerchant…aworkerweretokilllivingbeings…andhold
wrongview.Withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,wouldonlyhebereborn
inastateofmisery,inabaddestination,inthelowerworld,inhell—andnota
brahmin?”
“No,MasterGotama.Whetheritbeakhattiya,orabrahmin,oramerchant,or
a worker—those of all four castes who kill living beings … and hold wrong
view, with thebreakup ofthe body,after death,would bereborn in astate of
misery,inabaddestination,inthelowerworld,inhell.”
“Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of what
[authority]dothebrahminsinthiscasesaythus:‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste
...heirsofBrahmā’?”
8. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:
‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...heirsofBrahmā.’”
“What do you think,Assalāyana? Suppose a brahmin were to abstain from
killing living beings, from taking what is not given, from sexual misconduct,
fromfalsespeech,frommaliciousspeech,fromharshspeech,andfromgossip,
andweretobewithoutcovetousness,tohaveamindwithoutillwill,andtohold
rightview.Withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,wouldonlyheberebornin
agooddestination,intheheavenlyworld—andnotakhattiya,oramerchant,or
aworker?”
“No,MasterGotama.Whetherakhattiya,abrahmin,amerchant,oraworker
—those of all four castes who abstain from killing living beings … and hold
rightview,withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,willbereborninagood
destination,intheheavenlyworld.”
“Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of what
[authority]dothebrahminsinthiscasesaythus:‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste
...heirsofBrahmā’?”
9. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:
‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...heirsofBrahmā.’”
“Whatdoyouthink,Assalāyana?Isonlyabrahmincapableofdevelopinga
mind of loving-kindness toward this region, without hostility and without ill
will,andnotakhattiya,oramerchant,oraworker?”
“No,MasterGotama.Whetherakhattiya,abrahmin,amerchant,oraworker
—thoseofallfourcastesarecapableofdevelopingamindofloving-kindness
towardthisregion,withouthostilityandwithoutillwill.”“Thenonthestrength
ofwhat[argument]orwiththesupportofwhat[authority]dothebrahminsin
thiscasesaythus:‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...heirsofBrahmā’?”
10. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:
‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...heirsofBrahmā.’”
“What do you think, Assalāyana? Is only a brahmin capable of taking a
bathingbrushandbathpowder,goingtotheriver,andwashingoffdustanddirt,
andnotakhattiya,oramerchant,oraworker?”
“No,MasterGotama.Whetherakhattiya,abrahmin,amerchant,oraworker
—thoseofallfourcastesarecapableoftakingabathingbrushandbathpowder,
goingtotheriver,andwashingoffdustanddirt.”
“Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of what
[authority]dothebrahminsinthiscasesaythus:‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste
...heirsofBrahmā’?”
11. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:
‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...heirsofBrahmā.’”
“Whatdoyouthink,Assalāyana?Supposeaconsecratedkhattiyakingwereto
assemblehereahundredmenofdifferentbirthandsaytothem:‘Come,sirs,let
anyherewhohavebeenbornintoakhattiyaclanorabrahminclanoraroyal
clantakeanupperfire-stickoffinequalitywoodandlightafireandproduce
heat.Andalsoletanywhohavebeenbornintoanoutcastclan,atrapperclan,a
wicker workers’ clan, a cartwrights’ clan, or a scavengers’ clan take an upper
fire-stick made from a dog’s drinking trough, from a pig’s trough, from a
dustbin,orfromcastor-oilwoodandlightafireandproduceheat.’
“Whatdoyouthink,Assalāyana?Whenafireislitandheatisproducedby
someoneinthefirstgroup,wouldthatfirehaveaflame,acolor,andradiance,
andwoulditbepossibletouseitforthepurposesoffire,whilewhenafireislit
andheatisproducedbysomeoneofthesecondgroup,thatfirewouldhaveno
flame,nocolor,andnoradiance,anditwouldnotbepossibletouseitforthe
purposesoffire?”
“No,MasterGotama.Whenafireislitandheatisproducedbysomeoneof
thefirstgroup,thatfirewouldhaveaflame,acolor,andradiance,anditwould
bepossibletouseitforthepurposesoffire.Andwhenafireislitandheatis
producedbysomeoneofthesecondgroup,thatfiretoowouldhaveaflame,a
color,andradiance,anditwouldbepossibletouseitforthepurposesoffire.
Forallfirehasaflame,acolor,andaradiance,anditispossibletouseallfire
forthepurposesoffire.”
“Then on the strength of what [argument] or with the support of what
[authority]dothebrahminsinthiscasesaythus:‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste
...heirsofBrahmā’?”
12. “Although Master Gotama says this, still the brahmins think thus:
‘Brahminsarethehighestcaste...heirsofBrahmā.’”
“Whatdoyouthink,Assalāyana?Supposeakhattiyayouthweretounitewith
abrahmingirl,andasonwasbornfromtheirunion.Shouldasonbornfroma
khattiya youth and a brahmin girl be called a khattiya after the father or a
brahminafterthemother?”
“Hecouldbecalledboth,MasterGotama.”
13.“Whatdoyouthink,Assalāyana?Supposeabrahminyouthherewereto
unitewithakhattiyagirl,andasonweretobebornfromtheirunion.Shouldthe
sonbornfromabrahminyouthandakhattiyagirlbecalledakhattiyaafterthe
motherorabrahminafterthefather?”
“Hecouldbecalledboth,MasterGotama.”
14.“Whatdoyouthink,Assalāyana?Supposeamareweretobematedwitha
maledonkey,andafoalweretobebornastheresult.Shouldthefoalbecalleda
horseafterthemotheroradonkeyafterthefather?”
“Itisamule,MasterGotama,sinceitdoesnotbelongtoeitherkind.Iseethe
differenceinthislastcase,butIseenodifferenceineitheroftheformercases.”
15. “What do you think, Assalāyana? Suppose there were two brahmin
students who were brothers, born of the same mother, one studious and
intelligent, and one neither studious nor intelligent. Which of them would
brahmins feed first at a funeral feast, or at a ceremonial offering, or at a
sacrificialfeast,oratafeastforguests?”
“Onsuchoccasions,brahminswouldfeedfirsttheonewhowasstudiousand
intelligent,MasterGotama;forhowcouldwhatisgiventoonewhoisneither
studiousnorintelligentbringgreatfruit?”
16. “What do you think, Assalāyana? Suppose there were two brahmin
students who were brothers, born of the same mother, one studious and
intelligent, but immoral and of bad character, and one neither studious nor
intelligent,butvirtuousandofgoodcharacter.Whichofthemwouldbrahmins
feedfirstatafuneralfeast,orataceremonialoffering,oratasacrificialfeast,or
ata feastfor guests?” “On such occasions,brahmins would feed first the one
who was neither studious nor intelligent, but virtuous and of good character,
MasterGotama;forhowcouldwhatisgiventoonewhoisimmoralandofbad
characterbringgreatfruit?”
17.“First,Assalāyana,youtookyourstandonbirth,andafterthatyoutook
yourstandonscripturallearning,andafterthatyouhavecometotakeyourstand
ontheverygroundthatpurificationisforallfourcastes,asIdescribeit.”
Whenthiswassaid,thebrahminstudentAssalāyanasatsilentanddismayed,
hisshouldersdroopingandheaddown,glumandwithoutresponse.
(MN93:AssalāyanaSutta,abridged;II147–54)
(4)SevenPrinciplesofSocialStability
1.1.ThushaveIheard.OncetheBlessedOnewasstayingatRājagahaonMount
VulturePeak.NowjustthenKingAjātasattuVedehiputtaofMagadhawantedto
attacktheVajjians.
9
Hesaid:“IwillstriketheVajjianswhoaresopowerfuland
strong, I will cut them off and destroy them, I will bring them to ruin and
destruction!”
1.2.And KingAjātasattu said to his chief minister, the brahminVassakāra:
“Brahmin,gototheBlessedOne,worshiphimwithyourheadtohisfeetinmy
name,askifheisfreefromsicknessordisease,ifheislivingatease,vigorously
andcomfortably,andthensay:‘Lord,KingAjātasattuVedehiputtaofMagadha
wishestoattacktheVajjiansandsays:“IwillstriketheVajjians…bringthemto
ruin and destruction!”’ And whatever the Blessed One declares to you, report
thatfaithfullybacktome,forTathāgatasneverlie.”
1.3. “Very good, Sire,” said Vassakāra, and having had the state carriages
harnessed, he mounted one of them and drove in state from Rājagaha to
Vultures’Peak,ridingasfarasthegroundwouldallow,thencontinuingonfoot
towheretheBlessedOnewas.HeexchangedcourtesieswiththeBlessedOne,
thensatdowntoonesideanddeliveredtheking’smessage.
1.4.NowtheVenerableĀnandawasstandingbehindtheBlessedOne,fanning
him.AndtheBlessedOnesaid:
(1) “Ānanda, have you heard that the Vajjians hold regular and frequent
assemblies?”—“Ihaveheard,venerablesir,thattheydo.”
“Ānanda,aslongastheVajjiansholdregularandfrequentassemblies,they
maybeexpectedtoprosperandnotdecline.
(2)“HaveyouheardthattheVajjiansmeetinharmony,breakupinharmony,
andcarryontheirbusinessinharmony?”—“Ihaveheard,venerablesir,thatthey
do.”
“Ānanda,aslongastheVajjiansmeetinharmony,breakupinharmony,and
carry on their business in harmony, they may be expected to prosper and not
decline.
(3) “Have you heard that the Vajjians do not authorize what has not been
authorized already, and do not abolish what has been authorized, but proceed
according to what has been authorized by their ancient tradition?”—“I have,
venerablesir.”…(4)“Haveyouheardthattheyhonor,respect,revere,andsalute
theeldersamongthem,andconsiderthemworthlisteningto?…(5)thattheydo
notforcibly abductothers’ wives and daughters andcompel themto livewith
them?… (6) that they honor, respect, revere, and salute the Vajjian shrines at
homeandabroad,notwithdrawingthepropersupportmadeandgivenbefore?…
(7)thatproperprovisionismadeforthesafetyofarahants,sothatsucharahants
may come in future to live there and those already there may dwell in
comfort?”—“Ihave,Lord.”
“Ānanda, so long as such proper provision is made ... the Vajjians may be
expectedtoprosperandnotdecline.”
1.5.Then the Lord said to the brahminVassakāra:“Once, brahmin, when I
wasattheSārandadaShrineinVesāli,ItaughttheVajjiansthesesevenprinciples
forpreventingdecline,andaslongastheykeeptothesesevenprinciples,aslong
astheseprinciplesremaininforce,theVajjiansmaybeexpectedtoprosperand
notdecline.”
Atthis,Vassakārareplied:“MasterGotama,iftheVajjianskeeptoevenoneof
theseprinciples,theymaybeexpectedtoprosperandnotdecline—farlessall
seven. Certainly the Vajjians will never be conquered by King Ajātasattu by
forceofarms, butonly bymeans of propagandaand settingthem against one
another.Andnow,MasterGotama,Imustdepart.Iambusyandhavemuchto
do.”
“Brahmin,doasyouthinkfit.”ThenVassakāra,rejoicinganddelightedatthe
BlessedOne’swords,rosefromhisseatanddeparted.
1.6. Soon after Vassakāra had gone, the Blessed One said: “Ānanda, go to
whatever monks there are living around Rājagaha, and summon them to the
assemblyhall.”
“Yes,venerablesir,”saidĀnanda,andhedidso.ThenhecametotheBlessed
One, saluted him, stood to one side, and said: “Venerable sir, the Saṅgha of
monksisassembled.NowisthetimefortheBlessedOnetodoasheseesfit.”
ThentheBlessedOnerosefromhisseat,wenttotheassemblyhall,satdownon
the prepared seat, and said: “Monks, I will teach you seven things that are
conducivetowelfare.Listen,paycarefulattention,andIwillspeak.”
“Yes,venerablesir,”saidthemonks,andtheBlessedOnesaid:
“As long as the monks hold regular and frequent assemblies, they may be
expectedtoprosperandnotdecline.Aslongastheymeetinharmony,breakup
inharmony, and carry on their business in harmony,they may be expected to
prosper and not decline. As long as they do not authorize what has not been
authorized already, and do not abolish what has been authorized, but proceed
accordingtowhathasbeenauthorizedbytherulesoftraining…;aslongasthey
honor, respect, revere, and salute the elders of long standing who are long
ordained,fathersandleadersoftheorder…;aslongastheydonotfallpreyto
thecravingthatarisesinthemandleadstorebirth…;aslongastheyaredevoted
to forest-lodgings…; as long as they preserve their mindfulness regarding the
body,sothatinfuturethegoodamongtheircompanionswillcometothem,and
thosewhohavealreadycomewillfeelateasewiththem…;aslongasthemonks
holdtotheseseventhingsandareseentodoso,theymaybeexpectedtoprosper
andnotdecline.”
(fromDN16:MahāparinibbānaSutta;II72–77)
(5)TheWheel-TurningMonarch
3.“And,aftermanyhundredsandthousandsofyears,KingDaḷhanemisaidtoa
certainman: ‘My good man, whenever you see that the sacred wheel-treasure
hasslippedfromitsposition,reportittome.’‘Yes,Sire,’themanreplied.And
aftermanyhundredsandthousandsofyearsthemansawthatthesacredwheel-
treasure had slipped from its position. Seeing this, he reported the fact to the
king.ThenKingDaḷhanemisentforhiseldestson,thecrownprince,andsaid:
‘My son, the sacred wheel-treasure has slipped from its position. And I have
heardsaythatwhenthishappenstoawheel-turningmonarch,hehasnotmuch
longertolive.Ihavehadmyfillofhumanpleasures,nowisthetimetoseek
heavenlypleasures.You,myson,takeovercontrolofthisland.Iwillshaveoff
myhairandbeard,putonochrerobes,andgoforthfromthehouseholdlifeinto
homelessness.’And, having installed his eldest son indue formas king,King
Daḷhanemi shaved off his hair and beard, put on ochre robes, and went forth
fromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.And,sevendaysaftertheroyalsage
hadgoneforth,thesacredwheel-treasurevanished.
4.“Thenacertainmancametotheconsecratedkhattiyakingandsaid:‘Sire,
you should know that the sacred wheel-treasure has disappeared. At this the
kingwasgrievedandfeltsad.Hewenttotheroyalsageandtoldhimthenews.
Andtheroyalsagesaidtohim:‘Myson,youshouldnotgrieveorfeelsadatthe
disappearanceofthewheel-treasure.Thewheel-treasureisnotanheirloomfrom
yourfathers.Butnow,myson,youmustturnyourselfintoanoblewheel-turner.
Andthenitmaycomeaboutthat,ifyouperformthedutiesofanoblewheel-
turningmonarch,ontheuposathadayofthefifteenth,
10
whenyouhavewashed
yourheadandgoneuptotheverandahontopofyourpalacefortheuposatha
day, the sacred wheel-treasure will appear to you, thousand-spoked, complete
withrim,hub,andallaccessories.’
5. “‘But what, Sire, is the duty of a noble wheel-turning monarch?’—‘It is
this, my son: Yourself depending on the Dhamma, honoring it, revering it,
cherishingit,doinghomagetoit,andveneratingit,havingtheDhammaasyour
badge and banner, acknowledging the Dhamma as your master, you should
establish righteous guard, ward, and protection for your own household, your
troops, your khattiyas and vassals, for brahmins and householders, town and
countryfolk,asceticsandbrahmins,forbeastsandbirds.Letnocrimeprevailin
yourkingdom,andtothosewhoareinneed,givewealth.Andwhateverascetics
andbrahminsinyourkingdomhaverenouncedthelifeofsensualinfatuationand
aredevotedto forbearanceand gentleness,each one taminghimself, eachone
calminghimself,andeachonestrivingfortheendofcraving,fromtimetotime
you should approach them and ask: “What, venerable sirs, is wholesome and
whatisunwholesome,whatisblameworthyandwhatisblameless,whatistobe
followedandwhatisnottobefollowed?Whatactionwillinthelongrunleadto
harm and sorrow, and what to welfare and happiness?”
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Having listened to
them,youshouldavoidwhatisunwholesomeanddowhatiswholesome.That,
my son, is the duty of a noble wheel-turning monarch.’ “‘Yes, Sire,’ said the
king,andheperformedthedutiesofanoblewheel-turningmonarch.Andashe
didso,ontheuposathadayofthefifteenth,whenhehadwashedhisheadand
goneup tothe verandah ontop ofhis palace forthe uposathaday,the sacred
wheel-treasureappearedtohim,thousand-spoked,completewithrim,hub,and
allaccessories.Thenthekingthought:‘Ihaveheardthatwhenadulyanointed
khattiya king sees such a wheel on the uposatha day of the fifteenth, he will
becomeawheel-turningmonarch.MayIbecomesuchamonarch?’
6.“Then,risingfromhisseat,coveringoneshoulderwithhisrobe,theking
tookagoldvesselinhislefthand,sprinkledthewheelwithhisrighthand,and
said: ‘May the noble wheel-treasure turn, may the noble wheel-treasure
conquer!’Thewheelturnedtotheeast,andthekingfolloweditwithhisfourfold
army. Andinwhatever countrythewheel stopped,theking took upresidence
withhisfourfoldarmy.Andthosewhoopposedhimintheeasternregioncame
andsaid:‘Come,YourMajesty,welcome.Weareyours,YourMajesty.Ruleus,
Your Majesty.’ And the king said: ‘Do not take life. Do not take what is not
given. Do not commit sexual misconduct. Do not tell lies. Do not drink
intoxicating drinks. Enjoy your possessions as before.’
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And those who had
opposedhimintheeasternregionbecamehissubjects.
7.“Thenthewheelturnedsouth,west,andnorth...[assection6]...Thenthe
wheel-treasure,havingconqueredthelandsfromseatosea,returnedtotheroyal
capital and stopped before the king’s palace as he was trying a case, as if to
adorntheroyalpalace.”
(fromDN26:Cakkavatti-SīhanādaSutta;III59–63)
(6)BringingTranquillitytotheLand
9. Sitting to one side, the brahmin Kūṭadanta addressed the Blessed One:
“MasterGotama,Ihaveheardthatyouunderstandhowtoconductsuccessfully
thetriplesacrificewithitssixteenrequisites.NowIdonotunderstandallthis,
butIwanttomakeabigsacrifice.ItwouldbegoodifMasterGotamawould
explainthistome.”
“Thenlisten,brahmin,payproperattention,andIwillexplain.”
“Yes,sir,”repliedKūṭadanta,andtheBlessedOnecontinued:
10.“Brahmin,onceuponatimetherewasakingcalledMahāvijita.Hewas
rich, of great wealth and resources, with an abundance of gold and silver, of
possessionsandrequisites,ofmoneyandmoney’sworth,withafulltreasuryand
granary.AndwhenKingMahāvijitawasreflectinginprivate,thethoughtcame
to him: ‘I have acquired extensive wealth in human terms, I occupy a wide
extentoflandwhichIhaveconquered.Letmenowmakeagreatsacrificethat
would be to my benefit and happiness for a long time.’ And calling his
chaplain,
13
he told him his thought.‘I wantto makea greatsacrifice. Instruct
me,venerablesir,howthismaybetomylastingbenefitandhappiness.’
11.“Thechaplain replied: ‘YourMajesty’s countryisbeset by thieves.Itis
ravaged;villagesandtownsarebeingdestroyed;thecountrysideisinfestedwith
brigands.IfYourMajestyweretotaxthisregion,thatwouldbethewrongthing
to do. Suppose Your Majesty were to think: “I will get rid of this plague of
robbers by executions and imprisonment, or by confiscation, threats, and
banishment,” the plague would not be properly ended. Those who survived
would later harm Your Majesty’s realm. However, with this plan you can
completelyeliminatetheplague.Tothoseinthe kingdom who areengagedin
cultivatingcropsandraisingcattle,letYourMajestydistributegrainandfodder;
to those in trade, give capital; to those in government service assign proper
livingwages.Thenthosepeople,beingintentontheirownoccupations,willnot
harm the kingdom. Your Majesty’s revenues will be great; the land will be
tranquilandnotbesetbythieves;andthepeople,withjoyintheirhearts,playing
withtheirchildren,willdwellinopenhouses.’“Andsaying:‘Sobeit!,’theking
accepted the chaplain’s advice: he gave grain and fodder to those engaged in
cultivatingcropsandraisingcattle,capitaltothoseintrade,properlivingwages
to those in government service. Then those people, being intent on their own
occupations,didnotharmthekingdom.Theking’srevenuesbecamegreat;the
land was tranquil and not beset by thieves; and the people, with joy in their
hearts,playingwiththeirchildren,dwelledinopenhouses.”
(fromDN5:KūṭadantaSutta;I134–36)
V.TheWaytoaFortunateRebirth
INTRODUCTION
Inhisaccountofhis“noblequest,”theBuddhasaysthatwhenhegazedout
upontheworldsoonafterhisenlightenment,hesawthatsentientbeingsarelike
lotusflowersatvariousstagesofgrowthwithinapond(seep.71).Whilesome
beingsarelikelotusesatornearthesurfaceofthepond,capableofawakening
merelybybeingexposedtohisworld-transcendingteachings,thevastmajority
ofpeoplewhoencountertheDhammaarelikethelotusesgrowingdeepbelow
thesurface.Theselotusesbenefitfromthesunlightanduseitsenergytosustain
theirlife,yetstillneedtimetoreachthesurfaceandblossom.Sotoo,thegreat
multitudeof people who hear the Buddha’steachings and establishfaith must
stillnurturetheir wholesomequalitieswith theradiant energyof theDhamma
beforetheirmindstreamsbecomematureenoughtoattaindirectrealization.This
processordinarilyrequiresmanylives,andthussuchpeoplehavetotakealong-
term approach to their spiritual development. While practicing the way to
liberation, they must avoid a rebirth in the unfortunate realms and win
successiverebirthsblessedwithmaterialsecurity,happiness,andopportunities
forfurtherspiritualprogress.
These benefits, the enhancing conditions for spiritual development in the
Dhamma, come about by the acquisition of puñña or “merit,” a word that
signifiesthecapacityofwholesomeactiontoyieldbeneficialresultswithinthe
cycleofrebirths.AccordingtotheBuddha’steaching,thecosmos,withitsmany
realms of sentient existence, is governed at all levels by immutable laws,
physical,biological,psychological, andethical. The processby whichsentient
beings migrate from one state of existence to another is likewise lawful. It is
regulatedbyalawthatworksintwoprincipalways:first,itconnectsouractions
withaparticularrealmofrebirththatcorrespondstoouractions;andsecond,it
determinestherelationsbetweenouractionsandthequalityofourexperience
withintheparticularrealmintowhichwehavebeenreborn.
Thegoverningfactorinthisprocess,thefactorthatmakestheentireprocessa
lawfulone,isaforcecalledkamma(Skt:karma).Theword“kamma”literally
meansaction,buttechnicallyitreferstovolitionalaction.AstheBuddhasays:
“Itisvolition(cetanā)thatIcallkamma;forhavingwilled(cetayitvā),oneacts
by body, speech, and mind.”
1
Kamma thus denotes deeds that originate from
volition.Suchvolitionmayremainpurelymental,generatingmentalkammathat
occursasthoughts,plans,anddesires;oritmaycometoexpressionoutwardly
throughmanifestbodilyandverbalactions.
It may seem that our deeds, once performed, perish and vanish without
leavingbehindanytracesapartfromtheirvisibleimpactonotherpeopleandour
environment. However, according to the Buddha, all morally determinate
volitional actions create a potential to bring forth results (vipāka) or fruits
(phala)thatcorrespondtotheethicalqualityofthoseactions.Thiscapacityof
ourdeedstoproducethemorallyappropriateresultsiswhatismeantbykamma.
Ourdeedsgeneratekamma,apotentialtoproducefruitsthatcorrespondtotheir
own intrinsic tendencies. Then, when internal and external conditions are
suitable,thekammaripensandproducestheappropriatefruits.Inripening,the
kammareboundsuponusforgoodorforharmdependingonthemoralquality
oftheoriginalaction.Thismayhappeneitherlaterinthesamelifeinwhichthe
actionwasdone,inthenextlife,orinsomedistantfuturelife.
2
Theonething
thatiscertainisthataslongasweremainwithinsaṃsāraanystored-upkamma
of ours will be capable of ripening so longas it has not yet produced its due
results.
Onthebasisofitsethicalquality,theBuddhadistinguisheskammaintotwo
major categories: the unwholesome (akusala) and the wholesome (kusala).
Unwholesome kamma is action that is spiritually detrimental to the agent,
morallyreprehensible,andpotentiallyproductiveofanunfortunaterebirthand
painful results. The criterion for judging an action to be unwholesome is its
underlying motives, the “roots” from which it springs. There are three
unwholesomeroots:greed,hatred,anddelusion.Fromthesetherearisesawide
variety of secondary defilements—states such as anger, hostility, envy,
selfishness, arrogance, pride, presumption, and laziness—and from the root
defilementsandsecondarydefilementsarisedefiledactions.
Wholesomekamma,ontheotherhand,isactionthatisspirituallybeneficial
andmorallycommendable;itisactionthatripensinhappinessandgoodfortune.
Itsunderlyingmotivesarethethreewholesomeroots:nongreed,nonhatred,and
nondelusion, which may be expressed more positively as generosity, loving-
kindness,andwisdom.Whereasactionsspringingfromtheunwholesomeroots
arenecessarilyboundtotheworldofrepeatedbirthanddeath,actionsspringing
from the wholesome roots may be of two kinds, mundane and world-
transcending. The mundane (lokiya) wholesome actions have the potential to
produceafortunaterebirthandpleasantresultswithintheroundofrebirths.The
world-transcending or supramundane (lokuttara) wholesome actions—namely,
thekammageneratedbydevelopingtheNobleEightfoldPathandtheotheraids
to enlightenment—lead to enlightenment and to liberation from the round of
rebirths. This is the kamma that dismantles the entire process of karmic
causation.
Thecorrelationbetweenkammaanditsresultsisindicatedinageneralwayin
Text V,1(1). This sutta refers to unwholesome action as “dark kamma” and
mundanewholesomeactionas“brightkamma.”Italsoreferstoatypeofkamma
that is both dark and bright. Strictly speaking, this does not denote a single
action that simultaneously partakes of both unwholesome and wholesome
characteristics;technicallysuchathingisimpossible,foranactionmustbeone
or the other. The combined kamma refers to the conduct of a person who
intermittentlyengagesinboth unwholesomeandwholesomebehavior. Finally,
thesuttaspeaksofafourthtypeofkammathatisneitherdarknorbright.Thisis
the action of developing the Noble Eightfold Path, the wholesome world-
transcendingkamma.
It cannot be emphasized strongly enough that for Early Buddhism an
understanding and acceptance of this principle of kamma and its fruit is an
essentialcomponentofrightview.Rightviewhastwoaspects,theworld-bound
or mundane aspect, which pertains to life within the world, and the
supramundane or world-transcending aspect, which pertains to the path to
liberation.
3
Theworld-transcendingrightviewincludesanunderstandingofthe
FourNobleTruths,dependentorigination,andthethreemarksofimpermanence,
suffering,andnonself.ForEarlyBuddhismthisworld-transcendingrightview
cannotbetakenupinisolationfrommundanerightview.Rather,itpresupposes
anddependsuponthesoundsupportofmundanerightview,whichmeansafirm
conviction in the validity of the law of kamma and its unfolding through the
processofrebirths.
To accept the law of kamma entails a radical transformation in our
understandingofourrelationshiptotheworld.Thetwindoctrinesofkammaand
rebirthenableustoseethattheworldinwhichweliveis,inimportantrespects,
anexternal reflectionof the internal cosmos ofthe mind. Thisdoes notmean
that the external world can be reduced to a mental projection in the way
proposed by certain types of philosophical idealism. However, taken in
conjunction, these two doctrines do show that the conditions under which we
livecloselycorrespondtothekarmictendenciesofourminds.Thereasonwhya
livingbeingisrebornintoaparticularrealmisbecause in apreviouslifethat
being has generated the kamma, or volitional action,that leadsto rebirthinto
that realm. Thus, in the final analysis, all the realms of existence have been
formed,fashioned,andsustainedbythementalactivityoflivingbeings.Asthe
Buddha says: “For beings obstructed by ignorance and hindered by craving,
kamma is the field, consciousness the seed, and craving the moisture, for
consciousness to be established in a new realm of existence—either inferior,
middling,orsuperior”(AN3:76;I223).
4
Thenextselection,TextV,1(2),drawsafinerdistinctionamongthetypesof
unwholesome and wholesome kamma. The text enumerates ten primary
instancesofeachclass.Heretheyarecalledrespectively“unrighteousconduct,
conductnotinaccordancewiththeDhamma”and“righteousconduct,conduct
in accordance with the Dhamma” but they are usually known as the ten
pathwaysofunwholesomeandwholesomekamma.
5
Thetenaresubdividedby
way of the three “doors of action”—body, speech, and mind. Taking the
unwholesomefirst,therearethreekindsofbodilymisconduct:killing,stealing,
and sexual misconduct; four kinds of verbal misconduct: lying, malicious
speech, harsh speech, and idle chatter (or gossip); and three kinds of mental
misconduct: covetousness, ill will, and wrong view. The ten courses of
wholesomeactionaretheirexactopposites:abstinencefromthethreekindsof
bodily misconduct; abstinence from the four kinds of verbal misconduct; and
noncovetousness,goodwill,andrightview.Accordingtothesutta,thetentypes
of unwholesome kamma are the reason that beings are reborn in the bad
destinationsafterdeath;thetentypesofwholesomekammaarethereasonthat
beingsarereborninthegooddestinationsafterdeath.Asthesuttashows,theten
typesofwholesomekammaarethesupport,notonlyforaheavenlyrebirth,but
alsofor“thedestructionofthetaints,”theattainmentofliberation.
The concluding paragraphs of this sutta give us a brief survey of Buddhist
cosmology.TheBuddhistcosmosisdividedintothreebroadrealms—thesense-
sphererealm(kāmadhātu),theformrealm(rūpadh̄tu),andtheformlessrealm
(arūpadhātu)—eachcomprisingarangeofsubsidiaryplanes.
Thesense-sphererealm,ourrealm,issocalledbecausethebeingsrebornhere
arestronglydrivenbysensualdesire.Therealmisdividedintotwolevels,the
bad destinations and the good destinations. The bad destinations or “states of
misery”(apāya)arethreeinnumber:thehells,statesofintensetorment(seeMN
129 and 130, not included in this anthology); the animal kingdom; and the
sphereofspirits(pettivisaya),beingsafflictedwithincessanthunger,thirst,and
other sufferings. These are the realms of retribution for the ten unwholesome
pathsofkamma.
6
Thegooddestinationsinthesense-sphererealmarethehumanworldandthe
sixsensualheavenlyplanes.Thelatterare:thedevasintheheavenoftheFour
GreatKings,whoarepresidedoverbyfourpowerfuldevas(namely,theFour
Great Kings); the Tāvatiṃsa devas presided over by Sakka, a devotee of the
Buddha who is faithful but prone to negligence (see the Sakkasaṃyutta, SN
chapter 11); the Yāma devas; the devas of the Tusita heaven, the abode of a
bodhisattabeforehisfinalbirth;theNimmānaratīdevas(“thegodswhodelight
increating”);andtheParanimmitavasavattīdevas(“thegodswhocontrolwhatis
createdbyothers”).Thekarmiccauseforrebirthintothegooddestinationsof
thesense-sphererealmisthepracticeofthetencoursesofwholesomeaction.
Intheformrealmthegrossertypesofmaterialformareabsent.Itsdenizens,
knownasbrahmās,enjoybliss,power,luminosity,andvitalityfarsuperiortothe
beings in the sense-sphere realm. The form realm consists of sixteen planes.
Thesearetheobjectivecounterpartsofthefourjhānas.Attainmentofthefirst
jhānaleadstorebirthamongBrahmā’sassembly,theministersofBrahmā,and
theMahābrahmās,accordingtowhetheritisdevelopedtoaninferior,middling,
orsuperiordegree.Thesecondjhāna,attainedinthesamethreedegrees,leads
respectively to rebirth among the devas of limited radiance, of measureless
radiance,andofstreamingradiance.Thethirdjhāna,attainedinthesamethree
degrees, leads respectively to rebirth among the devas of limited glory, of
measurelessglory, and of refulgent glory.The fourth jhāna ordinarily leads to
rebirthamongthedevasofgreatfruit,butifdevelopedwithafeelingofdisgust
for perception, it will conduce to rebirth among the “nonpercipient beings,”
beingswholackperception.Theformrealmalsocomprisesfiveplanesreserved
exclusively for the rebirth of nonreturners (see pp. 379–80), called the pure
abodes: aviha, atappa, sudassa, sudassī, and akaniṭṭha. In each of the subtle
form planes, the lifespan is said to be of enormous duration and to increase
significantlywitheachhigherplane.
7
Inthethirdrealmofexistence,materialformisnonexistentandbaremental
processesexist;henceitiscalledtheformlessrealm.Thisrealmconsistsoffour
planes, which are the objective counterparts of the four formless meditative
attainments,after whichthey are named: the baseof the infinityof space,the
baseoftheinfinityofconsciousness,thebaseofnothingness,andthebaseof
neither-perception-nor-nonperception.Thelifespansascribedtotheserealmsare
respectively20,000;40,000;60,000;and84,000greateons.(Forthedurationof
oneeon,seeTextI,4(3).)
For Buddhist cosmology, existence in every realm, being the product of a
kamma with a finite potency, is necessarily impermanent. Beings take rebirth
intoarealmappropriatefortheirkammaordeeds,experiencethegoodorbad
results,andthen,whenthegenerativekammahasspentitsforce,theypassaway
totakerebirthelsewhereasdeterminedbystillanotherkammathathasfound
the opportunity to ripen. Hence the torments of hell as well as the joys of
heaven,nomatterhowlongtheymaylast,areboundtopass.TheBuddhaguides
thosewhosespiritualfacultiesarestilltendertoaspireforahumanorheavenly
rebirthandteachesthemthelinesofconductthatconducetothefulfillmentof
theiraspirations.Butheurgesthosewithmaturefacultiestomakeadetermined
efforttoputanendtotheaimlesswanderingofsaṃsāraandreachtheDeathless,
Nibbāna,whichtranscendsallconditionedplanesofbeing.
Whilethefirsttwotextsinthischapterestablishageneralcorrelationbetween
kamma and spheres of rebirth, Text V,1(3) specifies the underlying karmic
causesforthemanifestdifferencesinhumanlife.Itdoessowithreferencetoa
well-knownsayingoftheBuddha:“Beingsareownersoftheirkamma,heirsof
theirkamma;theyoriginatefromtheirkamma,areboundtotheirkamma,have
theirkammaastheirrefuge.Itiskammathatdistinguishesbeingsasinferiorand
superior.”Thesuttaproposestoexplainthisstatementwithregardtosevenpairs
of contrasting qualities observed among people. This text also introduces a
distinctionbetweentwotypesofconsequencesthatanunwholesomekammacan
have:themorepowerfulisrebirthinabaddestination;theotherisunpleasant
fruitswithin the humanstate, for example,a short lifespanfor one who in an
earlier life killed living beings. An analogous distinction obtains among the
consequencesthatawholesomekammacanhave:themorepowerfulisrebirthin
aheavenlyworld;theotherispleasantfruitswithinthehumanstate.
The next section deals with merit (puñña), wholesome kamma capable of
yieldingfavorableresultswithinthecycleofrebirths.Meritproducesmundane
benefits,suchasagoodrebirth,wealth,beauty,andsuccess.Italsoservesasan
enhancingconditionforsupramundanebenefits,thatis,forattainingthestages
alongthepathtoenlightenment.Hence,asseeninTextV,2(1),theBuddhaurges
his disciples to cultivate merit, referring to his own cultivation of merit over
manypreviouslivesasanexample.
The Nikāyas concisely organize the types of merit into three “bases of
meritorious deeds” (puññakiriyavatthu): giving, moral discipline, and
meditation.TextV,2(2)connectsthebasesofmeritwiththetypesofrebirthto
whichtheylead.IntheIndianreligiouscontext,thepracticeofmeritoriousdeeds
revolves around faith in certain objects regarded as sacred and spiritually
empowering, capable of serving as a support for the acquisition of merit. For
followersoftheBuddha’steachingthesearetheThreeJewels:theBuddha,the
Dhamma, and the Saṅgha.Text V,2(3) extols these as each supreme in its
particularsphere:theBuddha issupremeamong persons,theDhamma among
teachings,andtheSaṅghaamongreligiouscommunities.Thetextproposes an
interesting twofold distinction of the Dhamma Jewel: among all conditioned
things (dhammā saṅkhatā), the Noble Eightfold Path is supreme; among all
things conditioned or unconditioned (dhamm̄ saṅkhatā vā asaṅkhatā ),
Nibbāna is supreme. Merely having confidence in the Three Jewels, that is,
reverentialtrustanddevotiontowardthem,isitselfabasisofmerit;butasthe
versesattachedtothesuttamakeclear,theBuddhaandtheSaṅghaadditionally
functionastherecipientsofgifts,andinthisroletheyfurtherenabledonorsto
acquire merit leading to the fulfillment of their virtuous wishes. More will be
saidaboutthisaspectofmeritjustbelow.
Thefollowing sections of this chapter elaborate on the three bases of merit
individually, beginning in section 3 with giving or generosity (dāna). The
Buddhaoftentreatedgivingasthemostrudimentaryvirtueofthespirituallife,
for giving serves to break down the egocentric frame of mind on the basis of
which we habitually interact with others. Contrary to what a Western reader
might expect, however, “giving” for Early Buddhism does not mean simply
philanthropic charity directed toward the poor and disadvantaged. While it
includesthis,thepracticeofgivinghasamorecontext-specificmeaningrooted
inthesocial structure ofIndianreligiosity.InIndia duringtheBuddha’s time,
those who sought to fathom the deepest truths of existence and attain release
from the round of birth and death usually renounced home and family,
relinquishedtheirsecureplaceinthecohesiveIndiansocialorder,andadopted
theprecariouslifeofthehomelesswanderer.Withshavedheadsormattedlocks,
clad in ochre or white robes or going naked, they would move from place to
placewithoutfixedabode,exceptduringthethreemonthsoftherainyseason,
whentheywouldsettleinsimplehuts,caves,orotherlodgings.Suchhomeless
wanderers,known as samaṇas (“ascetics”)or paribbājakas (“wanderers”), did
not perform any remunerative services but depended upon the charity of
householders for their livelihood. The lay devotees provided them with their
material requisites—robes, food, lodgings, and medicines—doing so in the
confidence that such services were a source of merit that would help them
advanceafewstepsfartherinthedirectionoffinalemancipation.
When the Buddha appeared on the scene, he adopted this mode of life for
himself.Oncehecommencedhisworkasaspiritualteacher,heestablishedhis
Saṅghaonthesameprinciple:thebhikkhusandbhikkhunīs,themonksandnuns,
woulddependonthecharityofothersfortheirmaterialsupport,andtheywould
reciprocatebyofferingtheirdonorsthemorepreciousgiftoftheDhamma,the
teaching of the lofty path that leads to happiness, peace, and final liberation.
TextV,3(5)testifiestothisprincipleofmutualsupport.Byacceptingthegiftsof
laypeople,themonasticsgivethemtheopportunitytoacquiremerit.Sincethe
volumeofmeritgeneratedbytheactofgivingisconsideredtobeproportional
totheworthinessoftherecipient,whentherecipientsaretheBuddhaandthose
followinginhisfootsteps,themerit becomes immeasurable(seeMN142,not
included in this anthology). For this reason, the sāvakasaṅgha, the spiritual
communityofnobledisciples,iscalled“theunsurpassedfieldofmeritforthe
world” (anuttaraṃ puññakhettạ lokassa).
8
Gifts to the Saṅgha, it is said,
conducetogreatblessings;theyleadtoone’swelfareandhappinessforalong
timeandcanbringrebirthintheheavenlyworlds.ButasTextV,3(6)remindsus,
thisistrue“onlyforthemorallypure,notfortheimmoral.”
Thisleadstothenextbaseofmerit,“moraldiscipline”(sīla),whichforEarly
Buddhismrequirestheundertakingofprecepts.Themostbasicmoralguidelines
inculcatedintheNikāyasarethefiveprecepts,thetrainingrulestoabstainfrom
takinglife,stealing,sexualmisconduct,falsespeech,andtheuseofintoxicants.
These are mentioned in Text V,4(1), which, by an interesting twist in
terminology, speaks of them as “pristine, traditional, ancient gifts,” thus
implicitlysubsumingsīlaunderdāna.Thereasontheobservanceofpreceptsisa
form of giving is because one who undertakes precepts will be “giving to
immeasurable beings freedom from fear, hostility, and oppression,” and as a
karmic consequence “he himself will enjoy immeasurable freedom from fear,
hostility,andoppression.”
WhiletheBuddhaenjoinsobservanceofthefivepreceptsuponlayfollowers
asafull-timeobligation,herecommendsamorestringenttypeofmoralpractice
fortheuposatha,theobservancedaysdeterminedbythelunarcalendar:thefull-
moon day, the new-moon day, and the two half-moon days. (Of the four, in
Buddhistcountriestodayitisthefull-moondaythatisgivenpriority.)Onthese
occasions, devout lay Buddhists undertake eight precepts: the usual five, but
withthethirdchangedtocompletesexualabstinence,augmentedbythreeother
precepts that emulate the training rules of a novice monk or nun. The eight
precepts, enumerated in Text V,4(2), augment the training in sīla as a moral
observancewithatraininginself-restraint,simplicity,andcontentment.Inthis
respecttheypreparethediscipleforthetrainingofthemindundertakeninthe
practiceofmeditation,thethirdbaseofmerit.
Thepracticeofmeditationisnotonlytheheartofthepathtoliberationbuta
sourceofmeritinitsownright.Wholesomemeditationpractices,eventhosethat
do not directly lead to insight, help to purify the grosser levels of mental
defilement and uncover deeper dimensions of the mind’s potential purity and
radiance.TextV,5(1)declaresthatthetypeofmeditationthatismostfruitfulfor
the production of mundane merit is the development of loving-kindness
(mettābhāvanā).Thepracticeofloving-kindness,however,isonlyoneamonga
set of four meditations called the “divine abodes” (brahmavih̄ra) or
“immeasurable states” (appamaññ̄): the development of loving-kindness,
compassion,altruisticjoy,andequanimity,whicharetobeextendedboundlessly
toallsentientbeings.Briefly,loving-kindness(mett̄)isthewishforthewelfare
andhappinessofallbeings;compassion(karuṇā),thefeelingofempathyforall
thoseafflictedwithsuffering;altruisticjoy(muditā),thefeelingofhappinessat
the success and good fortune of others; and equanimity (upekkh̄), a balanced
reactiontojoyandmisery,whichprotectsonefromemotionalagitation.
Thesemeditationsaresaidtobethemeanstorebirthinthebrahmaworld;see
Text V,5(2). While the brahmins regarded the brahma world as the highest
attainment, for the Buddha it was just one exalted sphere of rebirth. The
concentrationarisenfromthesemeditations,however,canalsobeusedasabasis
forcultivatingthewisdomofinsight,andinsightculminatesinliberation.Text
V,5(3),thelastselectionofthischapter,thusgradesthedifferenttypesofmerit
according to their fruits: from giving (with the various kinds of gifts ranked
accordingtothespiritualstatusoftherecipients)throughthegoingforrefuge
andthefivepreceptstothemeditationonloving-kindness.Then,attheveryend,
it declares that the most fruitful deed among them all is the perception of
impermanence. The perception of impermanence, however, belongs to a
different order. It is so fruitful not because it yields pleasant mundane results
withintheroundofrebirths,butbecauseitleadstothewisdomofinsightthat
cutsthechainsofbondageandbringstherealizationofcompleteemancipation,
Nibbāna.
V.THEWAYTOAFORTUNATEREBIRTH
1.THELAWOFKAMMA
(1)FourKindsofKamma
“There are, O monks, these four kinds of kamma declared by me after I had
realizedthemformyselfbydirectknowledge.Whatfour?
“There is dark kamma with dark results; thereis bright kamma with bright
results;thereiskammathatisdarkandbrightwithdarkandbrightresults;there
is kamma that is neither dark nor bright, with neither dark nor bright results,
whichleadstothedestructionofkamma.
“Andwhat,monks,isdarkkammawithdarkresults?Here,monks,someone
generates an afflictive volitional formation of body, speech, or mind. Having
doneso,heisreborninanafflictiveworld.Whenheisreborninanafflictive
world, afflictive contacts touch him. Being touched by afflictive contacts, he
experiencesanafflictivefeeling,extremelypainful,asforexamplethebeingsin
hellexperience.Thisiscalleddarkkammawithdarkresults.
“And what, monks, is bright kamma with bright results? Here, monks,
someone generates a non-afflictive volitional formation of body, speech, or
mind.Havingdoneso,heisreborninanon-afflictiveworld.Whenheisreborn
in a non-afflictive world, non-afflictive contacts touch him. Being touched by
non-afflictive contacts, he experiences a non-afflictive feeling, extremely
pleasant,asforexamplethedevasofrefulgentgloryexperience.
9
Thisiscalled
brightkammawithbrightresults.
“Andwhat, monks,is darkand brightkamma withdark and bright results?
Here,monks,someonegeneratesbothanafflictivevolitionalformationofbody,
speech, or mind and a non-afflictive volitional formation of body, speech, or
mind.Havingdoneso,heisreborninaworldthatisbothafflictiveandnon-
afflictive.Whenheisreborninsuchaworld,bothafflictiveandnon-afflictive
contacts touch him. Being touched by such contacts, he experiences both an
afflictivefeelingandanon-afflictivefeeling,amixtureandconglomerationof
pleasure and pain, as for example human beings and some devas and some
beingsinthelowerworldexperience.Thisiscalleddarkandbrightkammawith
darkandbrightresults.
“Andwhat,monks,iskammathatisneitherdarknorbright,withneitherdark
nor bright results, which leads to the destruction of kamma? The volition to
abandonthisdarkkammawithdarkresults,andtoabandonthebrightkamma
with bright results, and to abandon the dark and bright kamma with dark and
bright results—this is called the kamma that is neither dark nor bright, with
neitherdarknorbrightresults,whichleadstothedestructionofkamma.
10
“These, monks, are the four kinds of kamma declared by me after I had
realizedthemformyselfbydirectknowledge.”
(AN4:232;II230–32)
(2)WhyBeingsFareasTheyDoAfterDeath
1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaswanderingbystages
intheKosalancountrywithalargeSaṅghaofmonks,andeventuallyhearrived
ataKosalanbrahminvillagenamedSālā.
2.ThebrahminhouseholdersofSālāheard:“ItissaidthattheasceticGotama,
theSakyansonwhowentforthfromaSakyanclan,hasbeenwanderinginthe
Kosalan country with a largeSaṅgha of monks and has come toSālā. Now a
goodreportofMasterGotamahasbeencirculatingthus:‘ThatBlessedOneisan
arahant...[asinTextIII,2]…thatisperfectlycompleteandpurified.’Nowitis
goodtoseesucharahants.”
3.ThenthebrahminhouseholdersofSālāwenttotheBlessedOne.Somepaid
homagetohimandsatdowntooneside;someexchangedgreetingswithhim
and,aftertheirgreetingsandcordialtalk,satdowntooneside;somesalutedhim
reverentiallyandsatdowntooneside;someremainedsilentandsatdowntoone
side.
4. When they were seated, they said to the Blessed One: “Master Gotama,
whatis thecause andcondition whysome beingshere, onthe breakupof the
body, after death, are reborn in a state of misery, in a bad destination, in the
lowerworld,inhell?Andwhatisthecauseandconditionwhysomebeingshere,
onthebreakup ofthe body, afterdeath, arereborn in agood destination,in a
heavenlyworld?”
5. “Householders, it is by reason of unrighteous conduct, conduct not in
accordance with the Dhamma, that some beings here, on the breakup of the
body, after death, are reborn in a state of misery, in a bad destination, in the
lowerworld,inhell.Itisbyreasonofrighteousconduct,conductinaccordance
with the Dhamma, that some beings here, on the breakup of the body, after
death,arereborninagooddestination,inaheavenlyworld.”
6.“WedonotunderstandthedetailedmeaningofMasterGotama’sstatement,
whichhehasspokeninbriefwithoutexpoundingthedetailedmeaning.Itwould
be good if Master Gotama would teach us the Dhamma so that we might
understandthedetailedmeaningofhisstatement.”
“Then,householders,listenandattendcloselytowhatIshallsay.”
“Yes,venerablesir,”theyreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
7. “Householders, there are three kinds of unrighteous bodily conduct,
conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma. There are four kinds of
unrighteousverbalconduct,conductnotinaccordancewiththeDhamma.There
arethreekindsofunrighteousmentalconduct,conductnotinaccordancewith
theDhamma.
8. “And how, householders, are there three kinds of unrighteous bodily
conduct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma? Here someone kills
living beings; he is murderous, bloody-handed, given to blows and violence,
mercilesstolivingbeings.Hetakeswhatisnotgiven;hetakesbywayoftheft
the wealth and property of others in the village or forest. He commits sexual
misconduct;hehasintercoursewithwomenwhoareprotectedbytheirmother,
father,motherandfather,brother,sister,orrelatives,whohaveahusband,who
areprotectedbylaw,andevenwiththosealreadyengaged.Thatishowthereare
threekindsofunrighteousbodilyconduct, conductnotinaccordancewiththe
Dhamma.
9. “And how, householders, are there four kinds of unrighteous verbal
conduct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma? Here someone speaks
falsehood; when summoned to a court, or to a meeting, or to his relatives’
presence,ortohisguild,ortotheroyalfamily’spresence,andquestionedasa
witness thus: ‘So, good man, tell what you know,’ not knowing, he says, ‘I
know,’ or knowing, he says, ‘I do not know’; not seeing, he says, ‘I see,’ or
seeing,hesays,‘Idonotsee’;infullawarenesshespeaksfalsehoodforhisown
ends, or for anothers ends, or for some trifling worldly end. He speaks
maliciously; he repeats elsewhere what he has heard here in order to divide
[those people] from these, or he repeats to these people what he has heard
elsewhere in order to divide [these people] from those; thus he is one who
dividesthosewhoareunited,acreatorofdivisions,whoenjoysdiscord,rejoices
indiscord,delightsindiscord,aspeakerofwordsthatcreatediscord.Hespeaks
harshly;heutterssuchwordsasarerough,hard,hurtfultoothers,offensiveto
others,borderingonanger,notconducivetoconcentration.Heengagesinidle
chatter; he speaks at the wrong time, speaks what is not fact, speaks what is
useless,speakscontrarytotheDhammaandtheDiscipline;atthewrongtimehe
speaks such words as are worthless, unreasonable, immoderate, and
unbeneficial. That is how there are four kinds of unrighteous verbal conduct,
conductnotinaccordancewiththeDhamma.
10. “And how, householders, are there three kinds of unrighteous mental
conduct, conduct not in accordance with the Dhamma? Here someone is
covetous; he covets the wealth and property of others thus: ‘Oh, may what
belongstoanotherbemine!’Orhehasamindofillwillandintentionsofhate
thus:‘Maythesebeingsbeslainandslaughtered,maytheybecutoff,perish,or
beannihilated!’Orhehaswrongview,distortedvision,thus:‘Thereisnothing
given, nothing offered, nothing sacrificed; no fruit or result of good and bad
actions;nothisworld,nootherworld;nomother,nofather;nobeingswhoare
rebornspontaneously;nogoodandvirtuousasceticsandbrahminsintheworld
whohavethemselvesrealizedbydirectknowledgeanddeclarethisworldand
the other world.’
11
That is how there are three kinds of unrighteous mental
conduct,conductnotinaccordancewiththeDhamma.So,householders,itisby
reason of such unrighteous conduct, such conduct not in accordance with the
Dhamma, that some beings here on the breakup of the body, after death, are
reborninastateofmisery,inabaddestination,inthelowerworld,inhell.
11.“Householders,therearethreekindsofrighteousbodilyconduct,conduct
in accordance with the Dhamma. There are four kinds of righteous verbal
conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma. There are three kinds of
righteousmentalconduct,conductinaccordancewiththeDhamma.
12. “And how, householders, are there three kinds of righteous bodily
conduct,conductinaccordancewiththeDhamma?Heresomeone,abandoning
thedestructionoflife,abstainsfromthedestructionoflife;withrodandweapon
laidaside,conscientious,merciful,hedwellscompassionatetoalllivingbeings.
Abandoningthetakingofwhatisnotgiven,heabstainsfromtakingwhatisnot
given;hedoesnottakebywayoftheftthewealthandpropertyofothersinthe
villageorintheforest.Abandoningsexualmisconduct,heabstainsfromsexual
misconduct;hedoesnothaveintercoursewithwomenwhoareprotectedbytheir
mother, father, mother and father, brother, sister, or relatives, who have a
husband,whoareprotectedbylaw,orwiththosealreadyengaged.Thatishow
therearethreekindsofrighteousbodilyconduct,conductinaccordancewiththe
Dhamma.
13.“Andhow,householders,aretherefourkindsofrighteousverbalconduct,
conduct in accordance with the Dhamma? Here someone, abandoning false
speech,abstainsfromfalsespeech;whensummonedtoacourt,ortoameeting,
ortohisrelatives’presence,ortohisguild,ortotheroyalfamily’spresence,and
questionedasawitnessthus:‘So,goodman,tellwhatyouknow,’notknowing,
hesays,‘Idonotknow,’orknowing,hesays,‘Iknow’;notseeing,hesays,‘Ido
notsee,’orseeing,hesays,‘Isee’;hedoesnotinfullawarenessspeakfalsehood
for his own ends, or for anothers ends, or for some trifling worldly end.
Abandoningmaliciousspeech,heabstainsfrommaliciousspeech;hedoesnot
repeatelsewherewhathehasheardhereinordertodivide[thosepeople]from
these,nordoesherepeattothesepeoplewhathehasheardelsewhereinorderto
divide [these people] from those; thus he is one who reunites those who are
divided, a promoter of friendships, who enjoys concord, rejoices in concord,
delightsinconcord,aspeakerofwordsthatpromoteconcord.Abandoningharsh
speech, he abstains from harsh speech; he speaks such words as are gentle,
pleasingto theear,and loveable,as go to the heart, are courteous, desired by
many, and agreeable to many. Abandoning idle chatter, he abstains from idle
chatter;hespeaksattherighttime,speakswhatisfact,speaksonwhatisgood,
speaks on the Dhamma and the Discipline; at the right time he speaks such
wordsasareworthrecording,reasonable,moderate,andbeneficial.Thatishow
therearefourkindsofrighteousverbalconduct,conductinaccordancewiththe
Dhamma.
14. “And how, householders, are there three kinds of righteous mental
conduct, conduct in accordance with the Dhamma? Here someone is not
covetous;he does not covet thewealth and propertyof othersthus: ‘Oh, may
what belongs to another be mine!’ His mind is without ill will, and he has
intentionsfreefromhatethus:‘Maythesebeingsbefreefromenmity,affliction,
andanxiety!Maytheylivehappily!’Hehasrightview,undistortedvision,thus:
‘Thereiswhatisgivenandwhatisofferedandwhatissacrificed;thereisfruit
andresultofgoodandbadactions;thereisthisworldandtheotherworld;there
ismotherandfather;therearebeingswhoarerebornspontaneously;thereare
good and virtuous ascetics and brahmins in the world who have themselves
realizedbydirectknowledgeanddeclarethisworldandtheotherworld.’Thatis
how there are three kinds of righteous mental conduct, conduct in accordance
withtheDhamma.So,householders,itisbyreasonofsuchrighteousconduct,
such conduct in accordance with the Dhamma that some beings here, on the
breakup of the body, after death, are reborn in a good destination, even in a
heavenlyworld.
15. “If, householders, one who observes righteous conduct, conduct in
accordancewiththeDhamma,shouldwish:‘Oh,thatonthebreakupofthebody,
afterdeath,mayIbereborninthecompanyofwell-to-donobles!’itispossible
that,onthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,hewillbereborninthecompanyof
well-to-donobles.Whyisthat?Becauseheobservesrighteousconduct,conduct
inaccordancewiththeDhamma.
16–17. “If, householders, one who observes righteous conduct, conduct in
accordancewiththeDhamma,shouldwish:‘Oh,thatonthebreakupofthebody,
afterdeath,may Ibe rebornin the companyof well-to-dobrahmins!…in the
companyofwell-to-dohouseholders!’itispossiblethat,onthebreakupofthe
body,afterdeath,hewillbereborninthecompanyofwell-to-dohouseholders.
Whyisthat?Becauseheobservesrighteousconduct,conductinaccordancewith
theDhamma.
18–42. “If, householders, one who observes righteous conduct, conduct in
accordancewiththeDhamma,shouldwish:‘Oh,thatonthebreakupofthebody,
afterdeath,mayIbereborninthecompanyofthedevasoftherealmoftheFour
GreatKings!…inthecompanyoftheTāvatiṃsadevas…theYāmadevas
theTusitadevas…thedevaswhodelightincreating…thedevaswhowield
poweroverothers’creations…thedevasofBrahmā’scompany...thedevasof
radiance
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... the devas of limited radiance ... the devas of immeasurable
radiance…thedevasofstreamingradiance…thedevasofglory…thedevas
oflimited glory… the devasof immeasurable glory... thedevas of refulgent
glory... thedevas of greatfruit ...the aviha devas ... the atappa devas... the
sudassadevas…thesudassīdevas…theakaniṭṭhadevas…thedevasofthe
base of the infinity of space ... the devas of the base of the infinity of
consciousness…thedevasofthebaseofnothingness…thedevasofthebase
ofneither-perception-nor-non-perception!’ it is possible that on the breakup of
thebody,afterdeath,hewillbereborninthecompanyofthedevasofthebase
of neither-perception-nor-non-perception. Why is that? Because he observes
righteousconduct,conductinaccordancewiththeDhamma.
43. “If, householders, one who observes conduct in accordance with the
Dhamma,righteousconduct,shouldwish:‘Oh, byrealizingitformyselfwith
directknowledge,mayIinthisverylifeenteruponanddwellintheliberationof
mind,liberationbywisdom,thatistaintlesswiththedestructionofthetaints!’it
ispossiblethat,byrealizingitforhimselfwithdirectknowledge,inthisverylife
hewillenteruponanddwellintheliberationofmind,liberationbywisdom,that
istaintlesswiththedestructionofthetaints.Whyisthat?Becauseheobserves
righteousconduct,conductinaccordancewiththeDhamma.”
13
44.Whenthiswassaid,thebrahminhouseholdersofSālāsaidtotheBlessed
One: “Magnificent, Master Gotama! Magnificent, Master Gotama! Master
GotamahasmadetheDhammaclearinmanyways,asthoughhewereturning
uprightwhathadbeenoverthrown,revealingwhatwashidden,showingtheway
toonewhowaslost,orholdingupalampinthedarknesssothosewithgood
eyesight can see forms. We now go for refuge to Master Gotama, to the
Dhamma, and to the Saṅgha of monks. Let Master Gotama accept us as lay
followerswhohavegoneforrefugefromtodayuntillife’send.”
(MN41:SāleyyakaSutta;I286–90)
(3)KammaandItsFruits
1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatSāvatthīin
Jeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’sPark.
2.ThenthebrahminstudentSubha,Todeyya’sson,wenttotheBlessedOne
andexchangedgreetings withhim. Whenthis courteous andamiable talkwas
finished,hesatdownatonesideandaskedtheBlessedOne:
3.“MasterGotama,whyisitthathumanbeingsareseen tobeinferiorand
superior? For people are seen to be short-lived and long-lived, sickly and
healthy,uglyandbeautiful,withoutinfluenceandinfluential,poorandwealthy,
lowbornandhighborn,stupidandwise.Whyisit,MasterGotama,thathuman
beingsareseentobeinferiorandsuperior?”
4. “Student, beings are owners of their actions, heirs of their actions; they
originatefromtheiractions,areboundtotheiractions,havetheiractionsastheir
refuge.Itisactionthatdistinguishesbeingsasinferiorandsuperior.”
“I do not understand in detail the meaning of Master Gotama’s statement,
whichhespokeinbriefwithoutexpoundingthemeaningindetail.Itwouldbe
goodifMasterGotamawouldteachmetheDhammasothatImightunderstand
indetailthemeaningofhisstatement.”
“Then,student,listenandattendcloselytowhatIshallsay.”
“Yes,sir,”Subhareplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
5.“Here,student,somemanorwomankillslivingbeingsandismurderous,
bloody-handed,giventoblowsandviolence,mercilesstolivingbeings.Because
of performing and undertaking such action, on the breakup of the body, after
death,heisreborninastateofmisery,inabaddestination,inthelowerworld,
inhell.Butifonthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,heisnotreborninastate
of misery, in a bad destination,in the lower world, in hell, but instead comes
backtothehumanstate,thenwhereverheisrebornheisshort-lived.
14
Thisis
theway,student,thatleadstoshortlife,namely,onekillslivingbeingsandis
murderous, bloody-handed, given to blows and violence, merciless to living
beings.
6.“Buthere,student,somemanorwoman,abandoningthedestructionoflife,
abstains from the destruction of life; with rod and weapon laid aside,
conscientious,merciful,hedwellscompassionatetoalllivingbeings.Becauseof
performingandundertakingsuchaction,onthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,
heisreborninagooddestination,inaheavenlyworld.Butifonthebreakupof
thebody,afterdeath,heisnotreborninagooddestination,inaheavenlyworld,
butinsteadcomesbacktothehumanstate,thenwhereverheisrebornheislong-
lived.
15
Thisistheway,student,thatleadstolonglife,namely,abandoningthe
destructionoflife,oneabstainsfromthedestructionoflife;withrodandweapon
laid aside, conscientious, merciful, one dwells compassionate to all living
beings.
7.“Here,student, someman orwoman is givento injuringbeings with the
hand, with a clod, with a stick, or with a knife. Because of performing and
undertakingsuchaction,onthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,heisrebornina
state of misery.… But if instead he comes back to the human state, then
wherever he is reborn he is sickly. This is the way, student, that leads to
sickliness,namely,one is given to injuringbeings with the hand, witha clod,
withastick,orwithaknife.
8.“Buthere,student,somemanorwomanisnotgiventoinjuringbeingswith
thehand,withaclod,withastick,orwithaknife.Becauseofperformingand
undertakingsuchaction,onthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,heisrebornina
good destination.… But if instead he comes back to the human state, then
whereverheisrebornheishealthy.Thisistheway,student,thatleadstohealth,
namely, oneisnotgiven to injuringbeingswiththe hand, withaclod,with a
stick,orwithaknife.
9.“Here,student,somemanorwomanisofanangryandirritablecharacter;
even when criticized a little, he is offended, becomes angry, hostile, and
resentful, and displays anger, hate, and bitterness. Because of performing and
undertakingsuchaction...heisreborninastateofmisery.…Butifinsteadhe
comesbacktothehumanstate,thenwhereverheisrebornheisugly.Thisisthe
way, student, that leads to ugliness, namely, one is of an angry and irritable
character…anddisplaysanger,hate,andbitterness.
10.“Buthere,student,somemanorwomanisnotofanangryandirritable
character; even when criticized a little, he is not offended, does not become
angry, hostile, and resentful, and does not display anger, hate, and bitterness.
Because of performing and undertaking such action ... he is reborn in a good
destination....Butifinsteadhecomesbacktothehumanstate,thenwhereverhe
isrebornheisbeautiful.Thisistheway,student,thatleadstobeingbeautiful,
namely, one isnotofanangryand irritablecharacter … anddoesnotdisplay
anger,hate,andbitterness.
11.“Here,student,somemanorwomanisenvious,onewhoenvies,resents,
andbegrudges thegains, honor, respect,reverence, salutations,and veneration
receivedbyothers.Becauseofperformingandundertakingsuchaction…heis
reborninastateofmisery.…Butifinsteadhecomesbacktothehumanstate,
thenwhereverheisrebornheiswithoutinfluence.Thisistheway,student,that
leads to being without influence, namely, one is envious... toward the gains,
honor,respect,reverence,salutations,andvenerationreceivedbyothers.
12.“Buthere,student,somemanorwomanisnotenvious,onewhodoesnot
envy,resent,andbegrudgethegains,honor,respect,reverence,salutations,and
veneration received by others. Because of performing and undertaking such
action...heisreborninagooddestination.…Butifinsteadhecomesbacktothe
human state, then wherever he is reborn he is influential. This is the way,
student,thatleadstobeinginfluential,namely,oneisnotenvious...towardthe
gains,honor,respect,reverence,salutations,andvenerationreceivedbyothers.
13.“Here,student,somemanorwomandoesnotgivefood,drink,clothing,
carriages, garlands, scents, unguents, beds, dwelling, and lamps to ascetics or
brahmins.Becauseofperformingandundertakingsuchaction...heisrebornin
a state of misery.... But if instead he comes back to the human state, then
whereverheisrebornheispoor.Thisistheway,student,thatleadstopoverty,
namely,onedoesnotgivefood...andlampstoasceticsorbrahmins.
14. “But here, student, some man or woman gives food ... and lamps to
asceticsorbrahmins.Becauseofperformingandundertakingsuchaction...heis
reborninagooddestination....Butifinsteadhecomesbacktothehumanstate,
thenwhereverheisrebornheiswealthy.Thisistheway,student,thatleadsto
wealth,namely,onegivesfood...andlampstoasceticsorbrahmins.
15.“Here,student,somemanorwomanisobstinateandarrogant;hedoesnot
pay homage to one who should receive homage, does not rise up for one in
whosepresenceheshouldriseup,doesnotofferaseattoonewhodeservesa
seat,doesnotmakewayforoneforwhomheshouldmakeway,anddoesnot
honor, respect, revere, and venerate one who should be honored, respected,
revered,andvenerated.Becauseofperformingandundertakingsuchaction...he
isreborninastateofmisery.…Butifinsteadhecomesbacktothehumanstate,
thenwhereverheisrebornheislowborn.Thisistheway,student,thatleadsto
lowbirth,namely,oneisobstinateandarrogant...anddoesnothonor,respect,
revere, and venerate one who should be honored, respected, revered, and
venerated.
16.“Buthere,student,somemanorwomanisnotobstinateandarrogant;he
pays homage to one who should receive homage, rises up for one in whose
presenceheshouldriseup,offersaseattoonewhodeservesaseat,makesway
for one for whom he should make way, and honors, respects, reveres, and
venerates one who should be honored, respected, revered, and venerated.
Becauseofperforming andundertaking such action… heis rebornin a good
destination.…Butifinsteadhecomesbacktothehumanstate,thenwhereverhe
is reborn he is high born. This is the way, student, that leads to high birth,
namely,oneisnotobstinateandarrogant…andhonors,respects,reveres,and
veneratesonewhoshouldbehonored,respected,revered,andvenerated.
17.“Here,student,somemanorwomandoesnotvisitanasceticorabrahmin
and ask: ‘Venerable sir, what is wholesome? What is unwholesome? What is
blamable?Whatisblameless?Whatshouldbecultivated?Whatshouldnotbe
cultivated?Whatkindofactionwillleadtomyharmandsufferingforalong
time? What kind of action will lead to my welfare and happiness for a long
time?’Becauseofperformingandundertakingsuchaction…heisrebornina
state of misery.… But if instead he comes back to the human state, then
wherever he is reborn he is stupid. This is the way, student, that leads to
stupidity, namely, one does not visit an ascetic or brahmin and ask such
questions.
18.“Buthere,student,somemanorwomanvisitsanasceticorabrahminand
asks:‘Venerablesir,whatiswholesome?…Whatkindofactionwillleadtomy
welfareandhappinessforalongtime?’Becauseofperformingandundertaking
suchaction…heisreborninagooddestination.…Butifinsteadhecomesback
to the human state, then wherever he is reborn he is wise. This is the way,
student,thatleadstowisdom,namely,onevisitsanasceticorbrahminandasks
suchquestions.
19.“Thus,student,thewaythatleadstoshortlifemakespeopleshort-lived,
theway that leadsto long lifemakes people long-lived;the way thatleads to
sickliness makes people sickly, the way that leads to health makes people
healthy;thewaythatleadstouglinessmakespeopleugly,thewaythatleadsto
beautymakespeoplebeautiful;thewaythatleadstobeinguninfluentialmakes
people uninfluential, the way that leads to being influential makes people
influential;thewaythatleadstopovertymakespeoplepoor,thewaythatleads
towealthmakespeoplewealthy;thewaythatleadstolowbirthmakespeople
lowborn,thewaythatleadstohighbirthmakespeoplehighborn;thewaythat
leads to stupidity makes people stupid, the way that leads to wisdom makes
peoplewise.
20.“Beingsareownersoftheiractions,heirsoftheiractions;theyoriginate
fromtheiractions,areboundtotheiractions,havetheiractionsastheirrefuge.It
isactionthatdistinguishesbeingsasinferiorandsuperior.”
21.Whenthiswassaid,thebrahminstudentSubha,Todeyya’sson,saidtothe
BlessedOne:“Magnificent,MasterGotama!Magnificent,MasterGotama!…[as
inprecedingtext]…LetMasterGotamaacceptmeasalayfollowerwhohas
goneforrefugefromtodayuntillife’send.”
(MN135:CūḷakammavibhaṅgaSutta;III202–6)
2.MERIT:THEKEYTOGOODFORTUNE
(1)MeritoriousDeeds
“Monks, do not fear meritorious deeds. This is an expression denoting
happiness,whatisdesirable,wishedfor,dear,andagreeable,thatis,meritorious
deeds.ForIknowfullwell,monks,thatforalongtimeIexperienceddesirable,
wishedfor,dear,andagreeableresultsfromoftenperformingmeritoriousdeeds.
“Havingcultivatedforsevenyearsamindofloving-kindness,forseveneons
ofcontractionandexpansionIdidnotreturntothisworld.Whenevertheeon
contracted I reached the plane of streaming radiance, and when the eon
expandedIaroseinanemptydivinemansion.AndthereIwasBrahmā,thegreat
Brahmā, the unvanquished victor, the all-seeing, the all-powerful. Thirty-six
times I was Sakka, ruler of the devas. And many hundreds of times I was a
wheel-turningmonarch,righteous,akingofrighteousness,conquerorofthefour
regionsoftheearth,maintainingstabilityintheland,inpossessionoftheseven
treasures.Whatneedistheretospeakofmerelocalkingship?
“Itoccurredtome,monks,towonder:‘Ofwhatkindofdeedofmineisthis
thefruit?Ofwhatdeed’sripeningamInowofsuchgreataccomplishmentand
power?’And thenitoccurred to me:‘Itis thefruitof threekindsof deeds of
mine, the ripening of three kinds of deeds that I am now of such great
accomplishmentandpower:deedsofgiving,ofself-mastery,andofrefraining.’”
(It22;14–15)
(2)ThreeBasesofMerit
“Thereare,Omonks,threewaysofmakingmerit.Whatthree?Thereareways
of making merit by giving, by moral discipline, and by the development of
meditation.
“Thereisapersonwhohaspracticedthemakingofmeritbygivingonlytoa
limiteddegree;and,likewisetoalimiteddegree,hehaspracticedthemakingof
merit by moral discipline; but he has not undertaken the making of merit by
meditation.Withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,hewillberebornamong
humansinanunfavorablecondition.
“Anotherperson has practiced the making of merit by giving as wellas by
moraldisciplinetoahighdegree;buthehasnotundertakenthemakingofmerit
by meditation. With the breakup of the body, after death, he will be reborn
amonghumansinafavorablecondition.
“OrhewillbereborninthecompanyofthedevasoftheFourGreatKings.
Andthere,theFourGreatKings,whohadpracticedtoaveryhighdegreethe
makingof meritby giving andby moral discipline, surpass thedevas of their
realmintenrespects:indivinelifespan,divinebeauty,divinehappiness,divine
fame,divinepower;andindivinesights,sounds,smells,tastes,andtouches.
“Or he will be reborn in the company of the Tāvatiṃsa devas.And there,
Sakka,rulerofthedevas,whohadpracticedthemakingofmeritbygivingand
bymoraldisciplinetoaveryhighdegree,surpassesthedevasoftheirrealmin
ten respects: in divine lifespan, divine beauty, divine happiness, divine fame,
divinepower;andindivinesights,sounds,smells,tastes,andtouches.
[SimilarstatementsaremadeforrebirthamongtheYāmadevas,Tusitadevas,
the devas who delight in creating, the devas who wield power over others’
creations,andfortherespectiverulersoftheserealms.]
“These,monks,arethethreewaysofmakingmerit.”
(AN8:36;IV241–43)
(3)TheBestKindsofConfidence
“Monks,therearethesefourbestkindsofconfidence.Whatfour?
“Towhateverextenttherearebeings,whetherfootlessorwithtwofeet,four
feet,or many feet,whether having formor formless, whetherpercipient, non-
percipient,orneitherpercipientnornon-percipient,theTathāgata,theArahant,
thePerfectlyEnlightenedOneisdeclaredthebestamongthem.Thosewhohave
confidenceintheBuddhahaveconfidenceinthebest,andforthosewhohave
confidenceinthebest,theresultisbest.
“Towhateverextenttherearethingsthatareconditioned,theNobleEightfold
Pathisdeclaredthebestamongthem.ThosewhohaveconfidenceintheNoble
EightfoldPathhaveconfidenceinthebest,andforthosewhohaveconfidencein
thebest,theresultisbest.
“To whatever extent there are things whether conditioned or unconditioned,
dispassionis declared the best among them, that is, the crushing of pride, the
removalofthirst,theuprootingofattachment,theterminationoftheround,the
destruction of craving, dispassion, cessation, Nibbāna. Those who have
confidenceintheDhammahaveconfidenceinthebest,andforthosewhohave
confidenceinthebest,theresultisbest.
“Towhateverextenttherearecommunitiesorgroups,theTathāgata’sSaṅgha
ofdisciplesisdeclaredthebestamongthem,thatis,thefourpairsofpersons,
the eight types of individuals—this Saṅgha of the Blessed One’s disciples is
worthyofgifts,worthyofhospitality,worthyofofferings,worthyofreverential
salutation, the unsurpassed field of merit for the world. Those who have
confidenceintheSaṅghahaveconfidenceinthebest,andforthosewhohave
confidenceinthebest,theresultisbest.”
Forthosewhohaveconfidenceasthebest,
ForthosewhounderstandthebestDhamma,
ForthosewhohaveconfidenceintheBuddha,
Theunsurpassedoneworthyofofferings;
ForthosewhohaveconfidenceintheDhamma,
Inblissfuldispassion,perfectpeace;
ForthosewhohaveconfidenceintheSaṅgha,
Thefieldofmeritunsurpassed;
Forthosegivinggiftstothebest,
Thebestkindofmeritincreases:
Thebestlifespan,beauty,andfame,
Goodreputation,happiness,andstrength.
Whetherhebecomesadevaorahumanbeing,
Thewiseonewhogivesofthebest,
ConcentrateduponthebestDhamma,
Rejoiceswhenhehasattainedtothebest.
(AN4:34;II34–35)
3.GIVING
(1)IfPeopleKnewtheResultofGiving
“O monks, if people knew, as I know, the result of giving and sharing, they
would not eat without having given, nor would they allow the stain of
niggardlinesstoobsessthemandtakerootintheirminds.Evenifitweretheir
lastmorsel,theirlastmouthful,theywouldnoteatwithouthavingsharedit,if
thereweresomeonetoshareitwith.But,monks,aspeopledonotknow,asI
know, the resultofgivingandsharing,theyeatwithouthavinggiven,andthe
stainofniggardlinessobsessesthemandtakesrootintheirminds.”
(It26;18–19)
(2)ReasonsforGiving
“Thereare,Omonks,eightreasonsforgiving.Whateight?Peoplemaygiveout
ofaffection;orinanangrymood;oroutofstupidity;oroutoffear;orwiththe
thought:‘Suchgiftshavebeengivenbeforebymyfatherandgrandfatherandit
wasdonebythembefore;henceitwouldbeunworthyofmetogiveupthisold
familytradition’;orwiththethought,‘Bygivingthisgift,Ishallberebornina
gooddestination,inaheavenlyworld,afterdeath’;orwiththethought,‘When
givingthisgift,myheartwillbeglad,andhappinessandjoywillariseinme’;or
onegivesbecauseitennoblesandadornsthemind.”
(AN8:33;IV236–37)
(3)TheGiftofFood
OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingamongtheKoliyans,atatown
calledSajjanela.OnemorningtheBlessedOnedressed,tookhisupperrobeand
bowl, and went to the dwelling of Suppavāsā, a Koliyan lady. Having arrived
there,he satdown on theseat prepared for him.The Koliyan lady Suppavāsā
attended to the Blessed One personally and served him with various kinds of
deliciousfood.WhentheBlessedOnehadfinishedhismealandhadwithdrawn
hishandfromthebowl,theKoliyanladySuppavāsāsatdowntooneside,and
theBlessedOneaddressedherasfollows:
“Suppavāsā,anoblefemaledisciple,bygivingfood,givesfourthingstothose
whoreceiveit.Whatfour?Shegiveslonglife,beauty,happiness,andstrength.
Bygivinglonglife,sheherselfwillbeendowedwithlonglife,humanordivine.
Bygivingbeauty,sheherselfwillbeendowedwithbeauty,humanordivine.By
givinghappiness,sheherselfwillbeendowedwithhappiness,humanordivine.
Bygivingstrength,sheherselfwillbeendowedwithstrength,humanordivine.
Anoble femaledisciple, by givingfood, gives those four thingsto those who
receiveit.”
(AN4:57;II62–63)
(4)ASuperiorPerson’sGifts
“Thereare,Omonks,thesefivegiftsofasuperiorperson.Whatfive?
“Hegivesagiftoutoffaith;hegivesagiftrespectfully;hegivesagiftatthe
right time; he gives a gift with a generous heart; he gives a gift without
denigration.
“Becausehegivesagiftoutoffaith,wherevertheresultofthatgiftripenshe
becomes rich, affluent, and wealthy, and he is handsome, comely, graceful,
endowedwithsupremebeautyofcomplexion.
“Becausehegivesagiftrespectfully,wherevertheresultofthatgiftripenshe
becomes rich, affluent, and wealthy, and his children and wives, his slaves,
messengers, and workers are obedient, lend their ears to him, and apply their
mindstounderstandhim.
“Because he gives a gift at the right time, wherever the result of that gift
ripenshebecomesrich,affluent,andwealthy,andbenefitscometohimatthe
righttime,inabundantmeasure.
“Becausehegivesagiftwithagenerousheart,wherevertheresultofthatgift
ripens he becomes rich, affluent, and wealthy, and his mind inclines to the
enjoymentofexcellentthingsamongthefivecordsofsensualpleasure.
“Becausehegivesagiftwithoutdenigratinghimselfandothers,whereverthe
resultofthatgiftripenshebecomesrich,affluent,andwealthy,andnolossof
his wealth takes place from any quarter, whether from fire, floods, the king,
bandits,orunlovedheirs.
“These,monks,arethefivegiftsofasuperiorperson.”
(AN5:148;III172–73)
(5)MutualSupport
“Monks,brahminsandhouseholdersareveryhelpfultoyou.Theyprovideyou
with the requisites of robes, almsfood, lodgings, and medicines in time of
sickness. And you, monks, are very helpful to brahmins and householders, as
youteachthemtheDhammathatisgoodinthebeginning,themiddle,andthe
end,withthecorrectmeaningandwording,andyouproclaimthespirituallifein
itsfulfillmentandcompletepurity.Thus,monks,thisspirituallifeislivedwith
mutualsupportforthepurposeofcrossingthefloodandmakingacompleteend
ofsuffering.”
(It107;111)
(6)RebirthonAccountofGiving
“Thereare,Omonks,eightkindsofrebirthonaccountofgiving.Whateight?
“Here, monks, a certain person makes a gift to an ascetic or a brahmin,
offeringhimfood,drink,clothing,andvehicles;garlands,scents,andunguents;
bedding, lodging, and lighting. In making the gift, he hopes for a reward. He
now notices affluent nobles, brahmins, or householders enjoying themselves
providedandfurnishedwiththefiveobjectsofsensualpleasure,andhethinks:
‘Oh,withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,mayIberebornamongthem!’
And he sets his mind on that thought, keeps to it firmly, and fosters it. This
thoughtofhisaimsatwhatislow,andifnotdevelopedtowhatishigheritwill
leadhimtojustsucharebirth.Withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,hewill
be reborn among affluentnobles, brahmins, or householders. This,however, I
declareonlyforthemorallypure,notfortheimmoral;foritisduetohispurity,
monks,thattheheart’sdesireofthemorallypuresucceeds.
16
“Thenagain,acertainpersonmakesagifttoanasceticorabrahmin,offering
himfood...orlighting.Inmakingthegift,hehopesforareward.Henowhears
ofthelonglife,thebeauty,andthegreathappinessofthedevasintherealmof
theFourGreatKings...theTāvatiṃsadevas…theYāmadevas…theTusita
devas…thedevaswhodelightincreating…thedevaswhowieldpowerover
others’creations,andhewishestoberebornamongthem.Hesetshismindon
thatthought,keepstoitfirmly,andfostersit.Thisthoughtofhisaimsatwhatis
low,andifnotdevelopedtowhatishigher,itwillleadhimtojustsucharebirth.
Afterhisdeath,whenhisbodybreaksup,hewillberebornamongthedevasin
therealmoftheFourGreatKings...oramongthedevaswhowieldpowerover
others’creations.This,however,Ideclareonlyforthemorallypure,notforthe
immoral;foritisduetohispurity,monks,thattheheart’sdesireofthemorally
puresucceeds.
“Thenagain,acertainpersonmakesagifttoanasceticorabrahmin,offering
himfood...orlighting.Henowhearsofthelonglife,thebeauty,andthegreat
happinessofthedevasofBrahmā’scompany,andhewishestoberebornamong
them.Hesetshismindonthatthought,keepstoitfirmly,andfostersit.This
thoughtofhisaimsatwhatislow,andifnotdevelopedtowhatishigher,itwill
leadhimtojustsucharebirth.Afterhisdeath,whenhisbodybreaksup,hewill
berebornamongthedevasofBrahmā’scompany.This,however,Ideclareonly
forthemorallypure,notfortheimmoral;onlyforonefreeoflust,notforone
who is lustful.
17
Because he is without lust, monks, the heart’s desire of the
morallypuresucceeds.
“These,monks,aretheeightkindsofrebirthonaccountofgiving.”
(AN8:35;IV239–41)
4.MORALDISCIPLINE
(1)TheFivePrecepts
“There are, O monks, eight streams of merit, streams of the wholesome,
nourishmentsofhappiness,thatareheavenly,ripeninginhappiness,conducive
toheaven,andthatleadtowhateveriswishedfor,loved,andagreeable,toone’s
welfareandhappiness.Whataretheeight?“Here,monks,anobledisciplehas
goneforrefugetotheBuddha.
This is the first stream of merit, stream of the wholesome, nourishment of
happiness,thatisheavenly,ripeninginhappiness,conducivetoheaven,andthat
leads to whatever is wished for, loved, and agreeable, to one’s welfare and
happiness.
“Further, a noble disciple has gone for refuge to the Dhamma. This is the
second stream of merit ... that leads to whatever is wished for, loved, and
agreeable,toone’swelfareandhappiness.
“Further,anobledisciplehasgoneforrefugetotheSaṅgha.Thisisthethird
streamofmerit...thatleadstowhateveriswishedfor,loved,andagreeable,to
one’swelfareandhappiness.
“There are further, monks, these five gifts—pristine, of long standing,
traditional, ancient, unadulterated and never before adulterated, that are not
beingadulteratedandthatwillnotbeadulterated,notdespisedbywiseascetics
andbrahmins.Whatarethesefivegifts?
“Here,monks, anoble disciplegives upthe destructionof lifeand abstains
fromit. By abstaining from thedestruction of life, the noble disciple gives to
immeasurablebeingsfreedomfromfear,hostility,andoppression.Bygivingto
immeasurable beings freedom from fear, hostility, and oppression, he himself
willenjoyimmeasurablefreedomfromfear,hostility,andoppression.Thisisthe
firstofthosegreatgiftsandthefourthstreamofmerit.
“Further,monks,anobledisciplegivesupthetakingofwhatisnotgivenand
abstainsfromit.Byabstainingfromtakingwhatisnotgiven,thenobledisciple
givestoimmeasurablebeingsfreedomfromfear.…Thisisthesecondofthose
greatgiftsandthefifthstreamofmerit.
“Further, monks, a noble disciple gives up sexual misconduct and abstains
from it. By abstaining from sexual misconduct, the noble disciple gives to
immeasurablebeingsfreedomfromfear.…Thisisthethirdofthosegreatgifts
andthesixthstreamofmerit.
“Further,monks,anobledisciplegivesupfalsespeechandabstainsfromit.
Byabstainingfromfalsespeech,thenobledisciplegivestoimmeasurablebeings
freedom from fear.… This is the fourth of those great gifts and the seventh
streamofmerit.
“Further,monks,anobledisciplegivesupwines,liquors,andintoxicants,the
basisfornegligence,andabstainsfromthem.Byabstainingfromwines,liquors,
andintoxicants,thenobledisciplegivestoimmeasurablebeingsfreedomfrom
fear,hostility,andoppression.Bygivingtoimmeasurablebeingsfreedomfrom
fear,hostility,andoppression,hehimselfwillenjoyimmeasurablefreedomfrom
fear,hostility,andoppression.Thisisthefifthofthosegreatgiftsandtheeighth
streamofmerit.
“These, monks, are the eight streams of merit, streams of the wholesome,
nourishments of happiness, which are heavenly, ripening in happiness,
conducive to heaven, and which lead to whatever is wished for, loved, and
agreeable,toone’swelfareandhappiness.”
(AN8:39;IV245–47)
(2)TheUposathaObservance
“When,Omonks,theuposathaobservanceiscompleteineightfactors,itisof
great fruit and benefit, luminous and pervasive. And how is the uposatha
observancecompleteineightfactors?
18
“Here,monks,anobledisciplereflectsthus:‘Aslongastheylivethearahants
abandonthedestructionoflife,abstainfromthedestructionoflife;withtherod
and weapon laid aside, they are conscientious and merciful and dwell
compassionatetowardalllivingbeings.TodayItoo,forthisdayandnight,will
do likewise. I will imitate the arahants in this respect, and the uposatha
observancewillbefulfilledbyme.’Thisisthefirstfactoritpossesses.
“Further,hereflects:‘Aslongastheylivethearahantsabandonthetakingof
whatisnotgiven,abstainfromtakingwhatisnotgiven;theyacceptonlywhatis
given,expectonlywhatisgiven,anddwellwithhonestheartsdevoidoftheft.
TodayItoo,forthisdayandnight,willdolikewise.…’Thisisthesecondfactor
itpossesses.
“‘As long as they live the arahants abandon sexual relations and observe
celibacy,livingapart,refrainingfromthecoarsepracticeofsexualintercourse.
TodayItoo,forthisdayandnight,willdolikewise.…’Thisisthethirdfactorit
possesses.
“‘Aslongastheylivethearahantsabandonfalsespeech,abstainfromfalse
speech;theyarespeakersoftruth,adherentsoftruth,trustworthyandreliable,no
deceiversoftheworld.TodayItoo,forthisdayandnight,willdolikewise.…’
Thisisthefourthfactoritpossesses.
“‘Aslongas theylive thearahants abandonwines, liquors, andintoxicants,
the basis of negligence, and abstain from them. Today I too, for this day and
night,willdolikewise.…’Thisisthefifthfactoritpossesses.
“‘Aslongastheylivethearahantseatonlyonemealadayandrefrainfrom
eatingatnight,outsidethepropertime.
19
TodayItoo,forthisdayandnight,will
dolikewise.…’Thisisthesixthfactoritpossesses.
“‘Aslongastheylivethearahantsabstainfromdancing,singing,instrumental
music,andunsuitableshows,andfromadorningthemselvesbywearinggarlands
andapplyingscentsandointments.TodayItoo,forthisdayandnight,willdo
likewise.…’Thisistheseventhfactoritpossesses.
“‘Aslongastheylivethearahantsabandontheuseofhighandluxuriousbeds
and seats and abstain from using them; they make use of low resting places,
either small beds or straw mats. Today I too, for this day and night, will do
likewise.Iwillimitatethearahantsinthisrespect,andtheuposathaobservance
willbefulfilledbyme.’Thisistheeighthfactoritpossesses.
“When,monks,theuposathaobservanceiscompleteintheseeightfactors,it
isofgreatfruitandbenefit,luminousandpervasive.Andtowhatextentisitof
greatfruitandbenefit,luminousandpervasive?
“Suppose,monks,someoneweretoexercisesovereigntyanddominionover
thesesixteengreatcountriesaboundinginthesevenprecioustreasures,thatis,
Aṅga, Magadha, Kāsi, Kosala, the Vajjis, the Mallas, the Cetis, Vaṃsa, the
Kurus,thePañcālas,Maccha,Sūrasena,Assaka,
Avantī,Gandhāra,andKamboja:
20
thiswouldnotbeworthasixteenthpartof
the uposatha observance complete in those eight factors. For what reason?
Becausehumankingshipispoorcomparedtodivinehappiness.
“ForthedevasintherealmoftheFourGreatKingsasingledayandnightis
equivalenttofiftyhumanyears;thirtysuchdaysmakeupamonth,andtwelve
suchmonthsmakeupayear.ThelifespanofthedevasintherealmoftheFour
Great Kings is five hundred such celestial years. It is possible, monks, that if
somemanorwomanhereobservestheuposathacompleteintheseeightfactors,
withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,theywillbereborninthecompanyof
thedevasintherealmoftheFourGreatKings.Itwaswithreferencetothisthat
Isaidhumankingshipispoorcomparedtodivinehappiness.
“FortheTāvatiṃsadevasa single dayand nightis equivalenttoa hundred
humanyears.…ThelifespanoftheTāvatiṃsadevasisathousandsuchcelestial
years….FortheYāmadevasasingledayandnightisequivalenttotwohundred
humanyears.…ThelifespanoftheYāmadevasistwothousandsuchcelestial
years…. For the Tusita devas, a single day and night is equivalent to four
hundredhumanyears.…ThelifespanoftheTusitadevasisfourthousandsuch
celestialyears….Forthedevaswhodelightincreating,asingledayandnightis
equivalent to eight hundred human years.… The lifespan of the devas who
delightincreatingiseightthousandsuchcelestialyears….Forthedevaswho
wieldpoweroverothers’creationsasingledayandnightisequivalenttosixteen
hundred human years; thirty such days make up a month, and twelve such
monthsmakeupayear.Thelifespanofthedevaswhowieldpoweroverothers’
creationsissixteenthousandcelestialyears.Itispossible,monks,thatifsome
manorwomanhereobservestheuposathacompleteintheseeightfactors,with
thebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,theywillbereborninthecompanyofthe
devaswhowieldpoweroverothers’creations.ItwaswithreferencetothisthatI
saidhumankingshipispoorcomparedtodivinehappiness.”
(AN8:41;IV248–51)
5.MEDITATION
(1)TheDevelopmentofLoving-Kindness
“Monks, whatever grounds there are for making merit productive of a future
birth,allthesedonotequalasixteenthpartoftheliberationofmindbyloving-
kindness.Theliberationofmindbyloving-kindnesssurpassesthemandshines
forth,brightandbrilliant.
“Just as the radiance of all the stars does not equal a sixteenth part of the
moon’sradiance,butthemoon’sradiancesurpassesthemandshinesforth,bright
andbrilliant,evenso,whatevergroundsthereareformakingmeritproductiveof
afuturebirth,allthesedonotequalasixteenthpartoftheliberationofmindby
loving-kindness.Theliberationofmindbyloving-kindnesssurpassesthemand
shinesforth,brightandbrilliant.
“Justasinthelastmonthoftherainyseason,intheautumn,whentheskyis
clearandfreeofclouds,thesun,onascending,dispelsthedarknessofspaceand
shinesforth,brightandbrilliant,evenso,whatevergroundsthereareformaking
meritproductiveofafuturebirth,allthesedonotequalasixteenthpartofthe
liberation of mind by loving-kindness. The liberation of mind by loving-
kindnesssurpassesthemandshinesforth,brightandbrilliant.
“And just as in the night, at the moment of dawn, the morning star shines
forth,brightandbrilliant,evenso,whatevergroundsthereareformakingmerit
productive of a future birth, all these do not equal a sixteenth part of the
liberation of mind by loving-kindness. The liberation of mind by loving-
kindnesssurpassesthemandshinesforth,brightandbrilliant.”
(It27;19–21)
(2)TheFourDivineAbodes
22.ThebrahminstudentSubha,Todeyya’sson,saidtotheBlessedOne:“Master
Gotama,IhaveheardthattheasceticGotamaknowsthepathtothecompanyof
Brahmā.”
“Whatdoyouthink,student?IsthevillageofNaḷakāranearhere,notfarfrom
here?”
“Yes,sir,thevillageofNaḷakāraisnearhere,notfarfromhere.”
“Whatdoyouthink,student?Supposetherewasamanbornandraisedinthe
villageofNaḷakāra,andassoonashehadleftNaḷakāratheyaskedhimaboutthe
pathtothevillage.Wouldthatmanbesloworhesitantinanswering?”
“No,MasterGotama.Whyisthat?Becausethatmanhasbeenbornandraised
inNaḷakāra,andiswellacquaintedwithallthepathstothevillage.”
“Still, a man born and raised in the village of Naḷakāra might be slow or
hesitantinansweringwhenaskedaboutthepathtothevillage,butaTathāgata,
whenasked about the brahma world or the way leading to the brahmaworld,
would never be slow or hesitant in answering. I understand Brahmā, and I
understandthebrahmaworld,andIunderstandthewayleadingtothebrahma
world, and I understand how one should practice to be reborn in the brahma
world.”
23.“MasterGotama,IhaveheardthattheasceticGotamateachesthepathto
thecompanyofBrahmā.ItwouldbegoodifMasterGotamawouldteachmethe
pathtothecompanyofBrahmā.”
“Then,student,listenandattendcloselytowhatIshallsay.”
“Yes,sir,”hereplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
24. “What, student, is the path to the company of Brahmā? Here a monk
dwellspervadingonequarterwithamindimbuedwithloving-kindness,likewise
thesecond,likewisethethird,likewisethefourth;soabove,below,around,and
everywhere,andtoallastohimself,hedwellspervadingtheall-encompassing
world with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, abundant, exalted,
immeasurable, without hostility, and without ill will. When the liberation of
mind by loving-kindness is developed in this way, no limiting action remains
there,nonepersiststhere.Justasavigoroustrumpetercouldmakehimselfheard
without difficulty in thefour quarters, so too, when theliberation of mind by
loving-kindnessisdevelopedinthisway,nolimitingactionremainsthere,none
persiststhere.
21
ThisisthepathtothecompanyofBrahmā.
25–27. “Again, a monk dwells pervading one quarter with a mind imbued
with compassion … with a mind imbued with altruistic joy … with a mind
imbued with equanimity, likewise the second, likewise the third, likewise the
fourth; so above, below, around, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he
dwells pervading the all-encompassing world with a mind imbued with
equanimity, abundant, exalted,immeasurable, withouthostility,and without ill
will.When the liberation of mindby equanimity is developed in this way, no
limitingactionremainsthere,nonepersiststhere.Justasavigorous trumpeter
couldmakehimselfheardwithoutdifficultyinthefourquarters,sotoo,when
theliberationofmindbyequanimityisdevelopedinthisway,nolimitingaction
remains there, none persists there. This too is the path to the company of
Brahmā.”
(fromMN99:SubhaSutta;II206–8)
(3)InsightSurpassesAll
[TheBuddha said toAnāthapiṇḍika:] “Inthe past, householder,there was a
brahminnamedVelāma.Hegavesuchagreatalmsofferingasthis:eighty-four
thousandbowlsofgoldfilledwithsilver;eighty-fourthousandbowlsofsilver
filledwithgold;eighty-fourthousandbronzebowlsfilledwithbullion;eighty-
four thousand elephants, chariots, milch cows, maidens, and couches, many
millionsoffinecloths,andindescribableamountsoffood,drink,ointment,and
bedding.
“AsgreataswasthealmsofferingthatthebrahminVelāmagave,itwouldbe
evenmorefruitfulifonewouldfeedasinglepersonpossessedofrightview.
22
AsgreatasthebrahminVelāma’salmsofferingwas,andthoughonewouldfeed
ahundredpersonspossessedofrightview,itwouldbeevenmorefruitfulifone
would feed a single once-returner. As great as the brahmin Velāma’s alms
offeringwas,andthoughonewouldfeedahundredonce-returners,itwouldbe
even more fruitful if one would feed a single nonreturner. As great as the
brahmin Velāma’s alms offering was, and though one would feed a hundred
nonreturners,itwouldbeevenmorefruitfulifonewouldfeedasinglearahant.
AsgreatasthebrahminVelāma’salmsofferingwas,andthoughonewouldfeed
ahundred arahants,it wouldbe evenmore fruitfulif one would feeda single
paccekabuddha.
23
As great as the brahmin Velāma’s alms offering was, and
though one would feed a hundred paccekabuddhas, it would be even more
fruitfulifonewouldfeedasinglePerfectlyEnlightenedBuddha...itwouldbe
evenmorefruitfulifonewouldfeedtheSaṅghaofmonksheadedbytheBuddha
andbuildamonasteryforthesakeoftheSaṅghaofthefourquarters…itwould
beevenmore fruitfulif, with atrusting mind,onewould gofor refugeto the
Buddha,theDhamma,andtheSaṅgha,andwouldundertakethefiveprecepts:
abstaining from the destruction of life, from taking what is not given, from
sexualmisconduct,fromfalsespeech,andfromtheuseofintoxicants.Asgreat
asallthismightbe,itwouldbeevenmorefruitfulifonewoulddevelopamind
ofloving-kindnessevenforthetimeittakestopullacow’sudder.Andasgreat
asallthismightbe,itwouldbeevenmorefruitfulstillifonewoulddevelopthe
perceptionofimpermanencejustforthetimeittakestosnapone’sfingers.”
(AN9:20,abridged;IV393–96)
VI.DeepeningOne’sPerspectiveontheWorld
INTRODUCTION
In interpreting suttas, we have to take account of the circumstances under
whichtheywerespokenandthepersonstowhomtheywereaddressed.During
thecourseofhislongministry,theBuddhahadtoadjusthisteachingtopeople
withdifferentcapacitiesandneeds.Hetaughtthosegiventorecklessbehaviorto
abandontheirself-defeatingways andengagein wholesomeactionsthatyield
pleasantfruits.Hetaughtthoseinclinedtoresignthemselvestofatethatpresent
effort determines our present quality of life as well as our future destiny. He
taught those convinced that personal existence ceases with bodily death that
livingbeings survive the breakup of the body and re-arise in accordance with
their kamma. He taught those not yet ripe enough for higher attainments to
aspireforrebirthamongthedevas,thecelestialbeings,andtoenjoytheblissand
gloryoftheheavens.
A blissful heavenly rebirth, however, is not the final purpose for which the
Buddha taught the Dhamma. At best it is only a temporary waystation. The
ultimategoalisthecessationofsuffering,andtheblissoftheheavens,nomatter
how blissful, is not the same as the cessation of suffering. According to the
Buddha’steaching,allstatesofexistencewithintheroundofrebirths,eventhe
heavens,aretransient,unreliable,boundupwithpain.Thustheultimateaimof
theDhammaisnothingshortofliberation,whichmeanstotalreleasefromthe
roundofbirthanddeath.
What lies beyond the round of rebirths is an unconditioned state called
Nibbāna.Nibbānatranscendstheconditionedworld,yetitcanbeattainedwithin
conditioned existence, in this very life, and experienced as the extinction of
suffering.TheBuddharealizedNibbānathroughhisenlightenment,andforthe
next forty-five years of his life he endeavored to help others realize it for
themselves.TherealizationofNibbānacomeswiththeblossomingofwisdom
andbrings perfect peace,untarnished happiness,and the stillingof themind’s
compulsivedrives.Nibbānaisthedestructionofthirst,thethirstofcraving.Itis
alsotheislandofsafetyamidtheragingcurrentsofoldage,sickness,anddeath.
ToguidehisspirituallymaturedisciplestowardNibbāna,theBuddhahadto
steer them beyond the blissful rewards that could be won in a future life by
performingwholesomedeeds.Hedidsothroughthe“world-transcending”facets
of his teaching, those aspects designed to lead disciples beyond the “triple
world”ofsense-sphereexistence,form-sphereexistence,andformlessexistence.
Again and again throughout the discourses, the Buddha offered an
uncompromising,razor-sharpexposureofthedangersinherentinallconditioned
statesofbeing.Hesoundedaclearwarningsignalthatallstatesofexistenceare
perilousandfraughtwithpain.Heinsisted,unambiguously,thattheonehopeof
lasting security lies in complete purification and liberation of the mind. He
presented a path that cuts through ignorance and craving in their entirety and
dispelsattachmenteventothemostrefinedstatesofmeditativeabsorption.
In his “graduated discourse on the Dhamma,” given to introduce receptive
newcomers to his teaching, the Buddha regularly began by discussing such
practices as giving and moral discipline. He would extol the beauty of such
virtuesas generosity,harmlessness, honesty, and self-restraint,explaining how
suchmeritoriousdeedsleadtothejoysofaheavenlyrebirth.Atthispoint,he
wouldreveal“thedanger,degradation,anddefilementinsensualpleasuresand
theblessingsofrenunciation.”Havingthusgradually“ripened”themindsofhis
audience,hewouldnextexpoundthedoctrinedistinctiveofhisownteaching,
theFourNobleTruths:suffering,itsorigin,itscessation,andthepath.Whenthe
BuddhahimselftaughttheFourNobleTruths,hispurposewasnottogivehis
listenersanintroductorycoursein“basicBuddhism,”buttoawakeninthemthe
“visionoftheDhamma,”thefirstdirectrealizationofthetranscendenttruththat
setsthediscipleontheirreversiblepathtoliberation.
Though we sometimes read in the suttas that disciples attained their first
experienceofawakeningmerelybylisteningtotheBuddhapreach,thisdoesnot
meanthattheDhammaiseasytounderstand.Suchdisciplescouldpenetratethe
truthwithsuchapparenteasebecause theirfacultiesweremature,perhapstoo
because they had accumulated sufficient supporting conditions from previous
lives.Butbyitsverynature,theworld-transcendingDhammagoesagainstthe
grainofthemundanemind.TheBuddhadescribestheDhammaas“subtle,deep,
anddifficulttosee,”andoneofthethingsthatmakesitsodifficulttoseeisits
thesisthatthehighesthappinesscannotbewonbyyieldingtothelongingsofthe
heartbutonlybysubduingthem.Thisthesisrunsutterlycountertothethought,
attitudes,andactionsofpeoplefullyimmersedintheworld.Aslongasweare
infatuated with the seductive lures of sensual enjoyment, as long as we take
delightinbeingthisorbecomingthat,wewillregardthesublimeDhammaasa
mystery and a puzzle. The Buddha therefore realized that the first major
challengehewouldfaceinestablishinghisworld-transcendingDhammawasto
breakthegripthatsensualpleasureandworldlyattachmenthaveuponthemind.
He had to knock the mind out of its accustomed ruts and setit moving in an
altogetherdifferentdirection.Hehadtosteerhisdisciplesawayfromtheluresof
sensuality and worldly attachment and guide them toward disenchantment,
completedispassion,andawakening.
TherequirementsofthistaskdrewuponalltheBuddha’sskillsasateacher.It
demandedthathemakeampleuseofhisabilitytopreciselyadjusthisteaching
to the mental proclivities of the people who came to him for instruction. It
demanded that he speak up frankly and candidly, even when candor bred
resentment.Itdemandedthatheenterthefrayofdebate,eventhoughhemuch
preferredthepeaceofseclusion.Itdemandedthatheusesimiles,metaphors,and
parables whenever concrete illustrations could give his arguments stronger
appeal. It demanded that he uphold his principles strongly whether his
adversarieswerehostileasceticsormiscreantmonkswithintheranksofhisown
order (see the opening sections of MN 22 and MN 38, not included in this
anthology).ThattheBuddhasucceededsowellinfulfillingthisdifficulttaskis
countedamonghis truly wonderfulandmarvelous accomplishments.Thisisa
pointtowhichTextVI,1bearseloquenttestimony.
TheBuddha’staskatthisstageintheunfoldingofhisdoctrineistoimpartto
usaradicallyneweducationintheartofseeing.TofollowtheBuddhainthe
directionhewantstoleadus,wehavetolearntoseebeneaththesurfaceglitter
ofpleasure,position,andpowerthatusuallyenthrallsus,andatthesametime,
to learn to see through the deceptive distortions of perception, thought, and
views that habitually cloak our vision. Ordinarily, we represent things to
ourselves through the refractory prism of subjective biases. These biases are
shaped by our craving and attachments, which they in turn reinforce. We see
thingsthat we wantto see; we blot out things thatthreaten or disturbus, that
shake our complacency, that throw into question our comforting assumptions
aboutourselvesandourlives.Toundothisprocessinvolvesacommitmentto
truth that is often unsettling, but in the long run proves exhilarating and
liberating.
TheeducationthattheBuddhaimpartstousbringsaboutadeepeningofour
perspectiveontheworld.Tohelpustransformourunderstandinganddeepenour
perspective on the world, he offers us three standpoints from which we can
appraise the values by whichwe order our lives. These three standpoints also
representthree“moments”orstepsinanunfoldingprocessofinsightthatstarts
from our common-sense attitudes and moves strategically toward higher
knowledge, enlightenment, and release. The three moments are: gratification
(ass̄da), danger (ādīnava), and escape (nissarạa). In Texts VI,2(1)–(3), this
schemeisappliedtotheworldasawhole.ElsewhereintheNikāyas,thescheme
is applied more specifically to the four material elements (SN 14:31–33), the
fiveaggregates(SN22:26–28),andthesixinternalandexternalsensebases(SN
35:13–18).TheBuddhaunderscorestheimportanceofthisschemewiththebold
pronouncementthatuntilhewasabletofullyevaluatetheworld(or,inthetexts
referredtojustabove,theelements,aggregates,andsensebases)inthisway,he
didnotclaimthathehadattainedtheunsurpassedperfectenlightenment.
Inadvancingsystematicallythroughthisscheme,onebeginsbyrecognizing
theindubitablefactthatsuchworldly phenomena assenseobjects,forms,and
feelingsgiveussomedegreeofgratification.Thisgratificationconsistsinthe
pleasure and joy (sukha-somanassa) we experience when we succeed in
fulfillingourdesires.Onceweacknowledgethisfact,wecanthenprobedeeper
byaskingwhethersuchpleasureandjoyareentirelysatisfactory.Ifweaddress
thisquestionwithutterhonesty,inadispassionateframeofmind,wewillrealize
that such pleasure and joy are far from satisfactory. To the contrary, they are
saddledwithdrawbacksanddefectsrangingfromthetriflingtothecatastrophic,
defects that we perpetually hide from ourselves so that we can continue
unhindered in our quest for gratification. This is their danger, the second
momentorstep ofobservation. Themost pervasive dangerlurking behindthe
innocent façade of our worldly pleasures is their inherent nature of being
impermanent (anicca), bound up with suffering and discontent (dukkha), and
subjecttoinevitablechangeanddecay(vipariṇāmadhamma).
Thethirdmoment,themomentofescape,followsfromthesecond.“Escape”
here is not escapism, a word that implies an anxious attempt to avoid facing
one’sproblemsbypretendingtheydon’texistandlosingoneselfindistractions.
Trueescapeisquitetheopposite:thesanest,mostrational,mostjudiciouscourse
ofactionwecantakewhenweaccuratelyrecognizeagenuinedanger.Itisour
searchforanexitfromaburningbuilding,our visittothedoctorwhenwe’re
besetbyapersistentfever,ourdecisiontogiveupsmokingwhenweunderstand
howitjeopardizesourhealth.Onceweseethattheobjectsofourattachmentare
flawed,besetwithhiddendangers,wethenrealizethatthewayofescapeliesin
dropping our attachment to them. This is “the removal of desire and lust, the
abandoning of desire and lust” (chandar̄ga-vinaya, chandarāga-pahāna)
referredtointhetexts.
The Pāli commentators, not surprisingly, connect these three moments with
the Four Noble Truths. “Gratification” implies the second noble truth, for
pleasureandjoyarousecraving,theoriginofsuffering.“Danger”isthetruthof
suffering itself. And “escape” is the truth of the cessation of suffering, which
alsoimpliestheNobleEightfoldPath,thefourthtruth,thewaytothecessation
ofsuffering.
In Text VI,3 the Buddha uses this threefold scheme to make a detailed
appraisalofthreemajorobjectsofattachment:sensualpleasures,bodilyform,
andfeelings.Themajorportionofthesuttaisdevotedtoanexaminationofthe
dangersinsensualpleasures.Itbeginswithaclose-upviewofthetribulations
thata“clansman”—ayounghouseholderpursuingtheancientIndiancounterpart
ofaprofessionalcareer—mightundergoinhisquestforsensualgratification.As
thediscourseunfolds,thescopeoftheexaminationwidensfromthepersonalto
the collective, encompassing the broader social and political consequences of
this quest. It reaches its climax in striking images of the warfare and human
devastation that follow from the frenzied mass drive for sensual gratification.
“Form”isthephysicalbody.TheBuddhabeginshistreatmentofformbyasking
the monks to consider a beautiful young girl. He then traces the progressive
stagesofherphysicaldecay,througholdage,sickness,death,andtheeventual
disintegrationofthecorpseuntilitisreducedtopowderedbone.Toshowthe
dangerin“feeling,”theBuddhaselectsthefeelingsofameditatingmonkinthe
jhānas, the meditative absorptions, the most refined mundane experiences of
pleasureandpeace.Hepointsoutthateventheseloftyfeelingsareimpermanent,
unsatisfactory,andsubjecttochange.
Althoughthefollowingtextsdonotexplicitlyapplythethreefoldscheme,its
underlyingpresenceisobvious.Emphasisfallsontheaspectofdanger.Thetwo
textspresentedinsection4againaccentuatethepitfallsinsensualpleasures,but
do so differently from the text of the preceding section. In Text VI,4(1), the
Buddhaappearsindialoguewithapompoushouseholderwhoimaginesthathe
has“cutoffallworldlyaffairs.”Todispelhiscomplacency,theBuddhausesa
seriesofsimilesthatexposethedeceptivenessofsensualpleasurestoshowhim
whatthe“cuttingoffofaffairs”meansinhisownsystemoftraining.Theuseof
similes prevails in Text VI,4(2) as well, which pits the Buddha against a
hedonist named Māgandiya.The Buddha here contends that sensual pleasures
seemtobepleasurableonlythroughadistortionofperception,butwhenseen
rightly are like the fire in a burning charcoal pit—“painful to touch, hot, and
scorching.” This passage includes some of the most powerful similes in the
Nikāyas,andtherecanbelittledoubtthattheBuddhahasnotusedthemlightly.
TheuseofimageryalsofiguresprominentlyinTextVI,5,whosethemeisthe
transience of human life. Buddhist literature frequently advises us to
contemplatethecertaintyofdeathandtheuncertaintyofthetimeofitsarrival.
Thisrecommendationisnotmadetoinduceanattitudeofchronicmorbiditybut
to help us break our infatuation with life and develop detachment. For this
reason,recollectionofdeathhasbecomeoneofthemostimportantsubjectsof
Buddhistmeditation.TheBuddhaelsewheresaysthattherecollectionofdeath
“when developed and cultivated, gains a foothold in the Deathless and
culminatesintheDeathless”(AN7:46;IV47–48).Herethetransienceoflifeis
underscoredbycountingupthenumberofdays,seasons,andevenmealsina
singlelife.
TextVI,6isanexcerptfromtheRaṭṭhapālaSutta,whichrecountsthelifeof
thediscipletheBuddhacalled“theforemostofthosewhohavegoneforthoutof
faith.”Raṭṭhapālawasayoungmanfromawell-establishedfamilywhowasso
deeply stirred upon hearing the Buddha preach that he at once decided to
embrace the homeless life of a monk. The Buddha asked him to obtain his
parents’ permission, but his parents, being strongly attached to their only son,
adamantlyrefusedtogivetheirconsent.Raṭṭhapālathereuponlaydownonthe
groundandrefusedtoeatordrink,determinedtodierightthereorreceivethe
goingforth.Hisparentsfinallyrelentedandpermittedhimtobecomeamonkon
theconditionthathelaterreturntovisitthem.Yearslater,whenhevisitedhis
parents, they tried to entice him back to the household life, but since he had
already attained arahantship he was now beyond any possibility of disrobing.
Afterleavingtheirhome,hewenttotheroyalpleasuregarden,wherehegavea
discoursetoKingKoravyaon“foursummariesoftheDhamma.”Thisdiscourse
conveys his profound insights into the depth and universality of suffering,
explaininginsimpleandlucidwordswhyhe,likecountlessothercapablemen
andwomenintheprimeoflife,chosetoleavethecomfortsofthehouseholdfor
theuncertaintiesofthehomelessstate.
Cravingforsensualpleasuresisonetrapthatkeepsbeingsboundtotheround
ofrebirths.Anothermajortrapisattachmenttoviews.Thus,toclearthepathto
Nibbāna,theBuddhanotonly had todispelinfatuationwithsensualpleasures
butalsotoexposethedangerinviews.Thisisthethemeofsection7.
The most dangerous of wrong views are those that deny or undermine the
foundationsofethics.TextVI,7(1)drawstogetheranumberofperilsposedby
thistypeofwrongview;prominentamongthemisrebirthinthelowerrealms.
Viewsalsoleadtoone-sided,biasedinterpretationsofrealitythatweclingtoas
accurate and complete. People who cling tenaciously to their own views of a
particular situation often come into conflict with those who view the same
situation in a different light. Views thus give rise to conflicts and disputes.
Perhapsnotext inall ofworld literature hasdepicted this dangerin dogmatic
clinging more succinctly than the famous parable of the blind men and the
elephant,includedhereasTextVI,7(2).
TextVI,7(3)drawsacontrastbetweenthepairofdistortedviewsknownas
eternalism (sassatav̄da) and annihilationism (ucchedav̄da), also called,
respectively, the view of existence(bhavadiṭṭhi) and the view ofnonexistence
(vibhavadiṭṭhi). Eternalism affirms an eternal component in the individual, an
indestructibleself,andaneternalgroundoftheworld,suchasanall-powerful
creator God. Annihilationism denies that there is any survival beyond death,
holding that the individual comes to a complete end with the demise of the
physicalbody.Eternalism,accordingtotheBuddha,leadstodelightinexistence
andbindsbeingstothecycleofexistence.Annihilationismisoftenaccompanied
byadisgustwithexistencethat,paradoxically,bindsitsadherentstothesame
existence that they loathe. As we will see below, the Buddha’s teaching of
dependentoriginationavoidsboththesefutileends(seeIX,pp.356–57).
Text VI,8 highlights a particular problem posed by eternalist views. Such
viewscaninspiremeditatorstoattainstatesofdeepmeditativebliss,whichthey
interpretasunionwithadivinerealityorrealizationofaneternalself.Fromthe
perspectiveoftheBuddha’steaching,however,suchattainmentsmerelycreate
thekarmicpotentialforrebirthintoarealminwhichthatmeditativeexperience
becomes the fundamental condition of consciousness. In other words, the
attainment of these states in the human realm generates rebirth into the
correspondingplanesintherealmofsubtleformortheformlessrealm.While
many religions point to a divine realm as the final answer to the human
predicament,theBuddha’steachingholdsthattheseworldsoffernofinaloutlet
fromtheimpermanenceandmiseryofsaṃsāra.
The text cited here shows that certain meditators attain the four “divine
abodes”andtakerebirthinthecorrespondingplanesofthebrahmaworld,where
they might abide even for as long as five hundred great eons. Eventually,
however,theymustinevitablypassawayandmaythenfallintotheunfortunate
realmsofrebirth.Similartextsnotincludedhere(AN3:114,4:124)saythesame
respectivelyaboutrealmsofrebirthcorrespondingtothejhānasandtheformless
attainments.
Thetwosuttasthatconstitutethefinalsectionofthischapteragaintakeupthe
unsatisfactoriness and insecurity of conditioned existence, reinforcing their
messagewithdramaticimagery.InTextVI,9(1),theBuddhadeclaresthatthe
amountoftearswehaveshedwhilewanderingthroughtheroundofrebirthsis
greaterthanthewaterinthefourgreatoceans.InTextVI,9(2),hetellsagroup
of thirty monks that the amount of blood they have shed when they were
slaughteredandexecutedintheroundofrebirthsisgreaterthanthewaterinthe
four great oceans. According to the compilers of the sutta, the impact of this
discourseuponthethirtymonkswassopowerfulthatallattainedfullliberation
onthespot.
VI.DEEPENINGONE’SPERSPECTIVEONTHE
WORLD
1.FOURWONDERFULTHINGS
“Monks, on the manifestation of the Tathāgata, the Arahant, the Perfectly
EnlightenedOne,fourwonderfulandmarvelousthingsappear.Whatfour?
“People for the most part delight in attachment, take delight in attachment,
rejoiceinattachment.ButwhentheDhammaofnonattachmentistaughtbythe
Tathāgata,peoplewishtolistentoit,lendanear,andtrytounderstandit.Thisis
thefirstwonderfulandmarvelousthingthatappearsonthemanifestationofthe
Tathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne.
“Peopleforthemostpartdelightinconceit,takedelightinconceit,rejoicein
conceit.ButwhentheDhammais taughtbytheTathāgatafortheabolition of
conceit,peoplewishtolistentoit,lendanear,andtrytounderstandit.Thisis
thesecondwonderfulandmarvelousthingthatappearsonthemanifestationof
theTathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne.
“Peopleforthemostpartdelightinrestlessness,takedelightinrestlessness,
rejoice in restlessness. But when the Dhamma of peace is taught by the
Tathāgata,peoplewishtolistentoit,lendanear,andtrytounderstandit.Thisis
thethirdwonderfulandmarvelousthingthatappearsonthemanifestationofthe
Tathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne.
“Peopleforthemostpartliveinignorance,areblindedbyignorance,fettered
byignorance.ButwhentheDhammaistaughtbytheTathāgatafortheabolition
ofignorance,peoplewishtolistentoit,lendanear,andtrytounderstandit.This
isthefourthwonderfulandmarvelousthingthatappearsonthemanifestationof
aTathāgata,anArahant,aPerfectlyEnlightenedOne.
“OnthemanifestationoftheTathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightened
One,thesefourwonderfulandmarvelousthingsappear.”
(AN4:128;II131–32)
2.GRATIFICATION,DANGER,ANDESCAPE
(1)BeforeMyEnlightenment
“Beforemyenlightenment,Omonks,whileIwasstillabodhisatta,itoccurred
tome:‘Whatisthegratificationintheworld,whatisthedangerintheworld,
whatistheescapefromtheworld?’Thenitoccurredtome:‘Whateverpleasure
andjoythereisintheworld,thisisthegratificationintheworld;thattheworld
is impermanent, bound up with suffering, and subject to change, this is the
danger in the world; the removal and abandoning of desire and lust for the
world,thisistheescapefromtheworld.’
“So long, monks, as I did not directly know, as they really are, the
gratificationinthe world as gratification,its danger as danger, and the escape
fromtheworldasescape,forsolongIdidnotclaimtohaveawakenedtothe
unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this world with its devas, Māra, and
Brahmā,inthispopulationwithitsasceticsandbrahmins,itsdevasandhumans.
“Butwhen Idirectly knew all this, then I claimedto haveawakened to the
unsurpassedperfectenlightenmentinthisworldwith…itsdevasandhumans.
The knowledge and vision arose in me: ‘Unshakable is the liberation of my
mind;thisismylastbirth;thereisnownorenewedexistence.’”
(AN3:101§§1–2;I258–59)
(2)ISetOutSeeking
“Omonks,Isetoutseekingthegratificationintheworld.Whatevergratification
thereisintheworld,thatIhavefound.Ihaveclearlyseenwithwisdomjusthow
farthegratificationintheworldextends.
“I set out seeking the danger in the world. Whatever danger thereis in the
world, that I have found. I have clearly seen with wisdom just how far the
dangerintheworldextends.
“Isetoutseekinganescapefromtheworld.Whateverescapethereisfromthe
world,thatIhavefound.Ihaveclearlyseenwithwisdomjusthowfartheescape
fromtheworldextends.”
(AN3:101§3;I259)
(3)IfThereWereNoGratification
“If,monks,therewerenogratificationintheworld,beingswouldnotbecome
enamoredwiththeworld.Butbecausethereisgratificationintheworld,beings
becomeenamoredwithit.
“Iftherewerenodangerintheworld,beingswouldnotbecomedisenchanted
with the world. But because there is danger in the world, beings become
disenchantedwithit.
“Iftherewerenoescapefromtheworld,beingscouldnotescapefromit.But
asthereisanescapefromtheworld,beingscanescapefromit.”
(AN3:102;I260)
3.PROPERLYAPPRAISINGOBJECTSOFATTACHMENT
1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatSāvatthīin
Jeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’sPark.
2.Then,whenitwasmorning,anumberofmonksdressed,andtakingtheir
bowlsandouterrobes,wentintoSāvatthīforalms.Thentheythought:“Itisstill
too early to wander for alms in Sāvatthī. Suppose we went to the park of the
wanderersof othersects.” Sothey wentto thepark ofthe wanderersof other
sects and exchanged greetings with the wanderers. When this courteous and
amiable talk was finished, they sat down at one side. The wanderers said to
them:
3. “Friends, the ascetic Gotama describes the full understanding of sensual
pleasures,andwedosotoo;theasceticGotamadescribesthefullunderstanding
ofform,andwedosotoo;theasceticGotamadescribesthefullunderstanding
offeelings,andwedosotoo.Whatthenisthedistinctionhere,friends,whatis
thevariance,whatisthedifferencebetweentheasceticGotama’steachingofthe
Dhammaandours,betweenhisinstructionsandours?”
1
4. Then those monks neither approved nor disapproved of the wanderers’
words.Withoutdoingeithertheyrosefromtheirseatsandwentaway,thinking:
“WeshallcometounderstandthemeaningofthesewordsintheBlessedOne’s
presence.”
5.WhentheyhadwanderedforalmsinSāvatthīandhadreturnedfromtheir
almsround, after the meal they went to the Blessed One, and after paying
homagetohim,theysatdownatonesideandtoldhimwhathadtakenplace.
[TheBlessedOnesaid:]
6. “Monks, wanderers of other sects who speak thus should be questioned
thus:‘But,friends,whatisthegratification,whatisthedanger,andwhatisthe
escape in the case of sensual pleasures? What is the gratification, what is the
danger, and what is the escape in the case of form? What is the gratification,
whatisthedanger,andwhatistheescapeinthecaseoffeelings?’Iftheyare
questionedthus,wanderersofothersectswillfailtoaccountforthematter,and
whatismore,theywillgetintodifficulties.Whyisthat?Becauseitisnottheir
province.Monks,Iseenooneintheworldwithitsdevas,Māra,andBrahmā,in
thispopulationwithitsasceticsandbrahmins,itsdevasandhumans,whocould
satisfythemindwithareplytothesequestionsexceptfortheTathāgataorhis
discipleoronewhohaslearneditfromthem.
[sensualpleasures]
7. (i) “And what, monks, is the gratification in the case of sensual pleasures?
Monks,therearethesefivecordsofsensualpleasure.Whatarethefive?Forms
cognizable by the eye that are wished for, desired, agreeable and likeable,
connectedwithsensualdesire,andprovocativeoflust.Soundscognizablebythe
ear.… Odors cognizable by the nose.… Flavors cognizable by the tongue.…
Tactileobjectscognizablebythebodythatarewishedfor,desired,agreeableand
likeable,connectedwith sensualdesire, and provocativeof lust.These arethe
fivecordsofsensualpleasure.Nowthepleasureandjoythatarisedependenton
thesefivecordsofsensualpleasurearethegratificationinthecaseofsensual
pleasures.
8.(ii)“Andwhat,monks,isthedangerinthecaseofsensualpleasures?Here,
monks,onaccountofthecraftbywhichaclansmanmakesaliving—whether
checking,accounting,calculating,farming,trading,husbandry,archery,theroyal
service,orwhatevercraftitmaybe—hehastofacecoldandheat;heisinjured
by contact with gadflies, mosquitoes, wind, sun, and creeping things; he risks
deathbyhungerandthirst.Nowthisisadangerinthecaseofsensualpleasures,
a mass of suffering visible in this present life,having sensual pleasures as its
cause,source,andbasis,thecausebeingsimplysensualpleasures.
9. “If no property comes to the clansman while he works and strives and
makes an effort thus, he sorrows, grieves, and laments, he weeps beating his
breast and becomes distraught, crying: ‘My work is in vain, my effort is
fruitless!’Nowthistooisadangerinthecaseofsensualpleasures,amassof
sufferingvisibleinthispresentlife,havingsensualpleasuresasitscause,source,
andbasis,thecausebeingsimplysensualpleasures.
10.“Ifpropertycomestotheclansmanwhileheworksandstrivesandmakes
aneffortthus,heexperiencespainandgriefinprotectingit:‘Howshallneither
kingsnorthievesmakeoffwithmyproperty,norfireburnit,norwatersweepit
away, nor unloved heirs make offwith it?’ And as he guards and protects his
property,kingsorthievesmakeoffwithit,orfireburnsit,orwatersweepsit
away,orunlovedheirsmakeoffwithit.Andhesorrows,grieves,andlaments,
heweepsbeatinghisbreastandbecomesdistraught,crying:‘Inolongerhave
myproperty!’Nowthistooisadangerinthecaseofsensualpleasures,amassof
sufferingvisibleinthispresentlife,havingsensualpleasuresasitscause,source,
andbasis,thecausebeingsimplysensualpleasures.
11.“Again,withsensualpleasuresasthecause...kingsquarrel with kings,
khattiyas with khattiyas, brahmins with brahmins, householders with
householders;motherquarrelswithson,son withmother, fatherwithson,son
withfather;brotherquarrelswithbrother,brotherwithsister,sisterwithbrother,
friendwithfriend.Andhereintheirquarrels,brawls,anddisputestheyattack
eachotherwithfists,clods,sticks,orknives,wherebytheyincurdeathordeadly
suffering.Nowthistooisadangerinthecaseofsensualpleasures,amassof
sufferingvisibleinthispresentlife,havingsensualpleasuresasitscause,source,
andbasis,thecausebeingsimplysensualpleasures.
12. “Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... men take swords and
shieldsandbuckleonbowsandquivers,andtheychargeintobattlemassedin
doublearraywitharrowsandspearsflyingandswordsflashing;andtherethey
are wounded by arrows and spears, and their heads are cut off by swords,
wherebytheyincurdeathordeadlysuffering.Nowthis toois a dangerin the
caseofsensualpleasures,amassofsufferingvisibleinthispresentlife,having
sensualpleasuresasitscause,source,andbasis,thecausebeingsimplysensual
pleasures.
13. “Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... men take swords and
shieldsandbuckleonbowsandquivers,andtheychargeslipperybastions,with
arrowsand spears flying andswords flashing; and there they are wounded by
arrows and spears and splashed with boiling liquids and crushed under heavy
weights, and their heads are cut off by swords, whereby they incur death or
deadly suffering. Now this too is a danger in the case of sensual pleasures, a
mass of suffering visible in this present life, having sensual pleasures as its
cause,source,andbasis,thecausebeingsimplysensualpleasures.
14. “Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... men break into houses,
plunderwealth,commitburglary,ambushhighways,seduceothers’wives,and
when they are caught, kings have many kinds of torture inflicted on them ...
wherebytheyincur death ordeadlysuffering.Nowthistoo isadanger inthe
caseofsensualpleasures,amassofsufferingvisibleinthispresentlife,having
sensualpleasuresasitscause,source,andbasis,thecausebeingsimplysensual
pleasures.
15. “Again, with sensual pleasures as the cause ... people indulge in
misconductofbody,speech,andmind.Havingdoneso,onthebreakupofthe
body,afterdeath,theyarereborninastateofmisery,inabaddestination,inthe
lower world, in hell. Now this is a danger in the case of sensual pleasures, a
mass of suffering in the life to come,
2
having sensual pleasures as its cause,
source,andbasis,thecausebeingsimplysensualpleasures.
16.(iii)“Andwhat,monks,istheescapeinthecaseofsensualpleasures?Itis
theremovalofdesireandlust,theabandonmentofdesireandlustforsensual
pleasures.Thisistheescapeinthecaseofsensualpleasures.
17.“Thatthoseasceticsandbrahminswhodonotunderstandasitreallyisthe
gratificationasgratification,thedangerasdanger,andtheescapeasescapein
the case of sensual pleasures, can either themselves fully understand sensual
pleasuresorinstructotherssothattheycanfullyunderstandsensualpleasures—
thatisimpossible.Thatthoseasceticsandbrahminswhounderstandasitreally
is the gratification as gratification, the danger as danger, and the escape as
escapeinthecaseofsensualpleasures,canthemselvesfullyunderstandsensual
pleasuresandinstructotherssothattheycanfullyunderstandsensualpleasures
—thatispossible.
[form]
18.(i)“Andwhat,monks,isthegratificationinthecaseofform?Supposethere
wereagirlofthekhattiyaclassorthebrahminclassorofhouseholderstock,in
herfifteenthorsixteenthyear,neithertootallnortooshort,neithertoothinnor
too fat, neither too dark nor too fair. Is her beauty and loveliness then at its
height?”—“Yes, venerable sir.”—“Now the pleasure and joy that arise in
dependence on that beauty and loveliness are the gratification in the case of
form.
19.(ii)“And what,monks, isthedanger inthe caseofform? Lateron one
mightseethatsamewomanhereateighty,ninety,orahundredyears,aged,as
crookedasaroofbracket,doubledup,supportedbyawalkingstick,tottering,
frail, her youth gone, her teeth broken, gray-haired, scanty-haired, bald,
wrinkled, with limbs all blotchy. What do you think, monks? Has her former
beauty and loveliness vanished and the danger become evident?”—“Yes,
venerablesir.”—“Monks,thisisadangerinthecaseofform.
20.“Again,onemightseethatsamewomanafflicted,suffering,andgravely
ill,lyingfouledinherownurineandexcrement,liftedupbysomeandsetdown
by others. What do you think, monks? Has her former beauty and loveliness
vanishedandthedangerbecomeevident?”—“Yes,venerablesir.”—“Monks,this
tooisadangerinthecaseofform.
21. “Again, one might see that same woman as a corpse thrown aside in a
charnelground,one,two,orthreedaysdead,bloated,livid,andoozingmatter.
Whatdoyouthink,monks?Hasherformerbeautyandlovelinessvanishedand
the danger become evident?”—“Yes, venerable sir.”—“Monks, this too is a
dangerinthecaseofform.
22–29.“Again,onemightseethatsamewomanasacorpsethrownasideina
charnel ground, being devoured by crows, hawks, vultures, dogs, jackals, or
variouskindsofworms...askeletonwithfleshandblood,heldtogetherwith
sinews...afleshlessskeletonsmearedwithblood,heldtogetherwithsinews...a
skeleton without flesh and blood, held together with sinews ...disconnected
bones scattered in all directions—here a hand-bone, there a foot-bone, here a
thigh-bone,therearib-bone,hereahip-bone,thereaback-bone,heretheskull
…bonesbleachedwhite,thecolorofshells...bonesheapedup…bonesmore
thanayearold,rottedandcrumbledtodust.Whatdoyouthink,monks?Hasher
formerbeautyandlovelinessvanishedandthedangerbecomeevident?”—“Yes,
venerablesir.”—“Monks,thistooisadangerinthecaseofform.
30.(iii)“Andwhat,monks,istheescapeinthecaseofform?Itistheremoval
of desire and lust, the abandonment of desire and lust for form. This is the
escapeinthecaseofform.
31.“Thatthoseasceticsandbrahminswhodonotunderstandasitreallyisthe
gratificationasgratification,thedangerasdanger,andtheescapeasescapein
thecaseofform,caneitherthemselvesfullyunderstandformorinstructothers
sothattheycanfullyunderstandform—thatisimpossible.Thatthoseascetics
andbrahminswhounderstandasitreallyisthegratificationasgratification,the
dangerasdanger,andtheescapeasescapeinthecaseofform,canthemselves
fullyunderstandformandinstructotherssothattheycanfullyunderstandform
—thatispossible.
[feelings]
32. (i) “And what, monks, is the gratification in the case of feelings? Here,
monks, quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unwholesome
states,amonkentersuponanddwellsinthefirstjhāna,whichisaccompanied
bythoughtandexamination,withraptureandhappinessbornofseclusion.On
such an occasion he does not choose for his own affliction, or for anothers
affliction,orfortheafflictionofboth.Onthatoccasionhefeelsonlyfeelingthat
isfreefromaffliction.Thehighestgratificationinthecaseoffeelingsisfreedom
fromaffliction,Isay.
33–35.“Again, with thestilling of thoughtand examination, a monk enters
uponanddwellsinthesecondjhāna.…Withthefadingawayaswellofrapture
... he enters upon and dwells in the third jhāna.... With the abandoning of
pleasureandpainheentersuponanddwellsinthefourthjhāna.…Onsuchan
occasionhedoesnotchooseforhisownaffliction,orforanothersaffliction,or
fortheafflictionofboth.Onthatoccasionhefeelsonlyfeelingthatisfreefrom
affliction. The highest gratification in the case of feelings is freedom from
affliction,Isay.
36.(ii)“Andwhat,monks,isthedangerinthecaseoffeelings?Feelingsare
impermanent,suffering,andsubjecttochange.Thisisthedangerinthecaseof
feelings.
37. (iii) “And what, monks, is the escape in the case of feelings? It is the
removalofdesireandlust,theabandonmentofdesireandlustforfeelings.This
istheescapeinthecaseoffeelings.
38.“Thatthoseasceticsandbrahminswhodonotunderstandasitreallyisthe
gratificationasgratification,thedangerasdanger,andtheescapeasescapein
thecaseoffeelings,caneitherthemselvesfullyunderstandfeelingsorinstruct
otherssothattheycanfullyunderstandfeelings—thatisimpossible.Thatthose
ascetics and brahmins who understand as it really is the gratification as
gratification, the danger as danger, and the escape as escape in the case of
feelings,canthemselvesfullyunderstandfeelingsandinstructotherssothatthey
canfullyunderstandfeelings—thatispossible.”
ThatiswhattheBlessedOnesaid.Themonksweresatisfiedanddelightedin
theBlessedOne’swords.
(MN13:MahādukkhakkhandhaSutta;I84–90)
4.THEPITFALLSINSENSUALPLEASURES
(1)CuttingOffAllAffairs
[The householder Potaliya asked the Blessed One:] “Venerable sir, how is the
cuttingoffofaffairs
3
intheNobleOne’sdisciplineachievedentirelyandinall
ways?Itwouldbegood,venerablesir,iftheBlessedOnewouldteachmethe
Dhamma, showing me how the cutting off of affairs in the Noble One’s
disciplineisachievedentirelyandinallways.”
“Thenlisten,householder,andattendcloselytowhatIshallsay.”
“Yes,venerablesir,”Potaliyathehouseholderreplied.TheBlessedOnesaid
this:
15. “Householder, suppose a dog, overcome by hunger and weakness, was
waitingbyabutchersshop.Thenaskilledbutcherorhisapprenticewouldtoss
thedog a well-hacked, clean-hacked skeleton of meatless bones smeared with
blood.Whatdo youthink, householder?Would thatdogget ridof hishunger
and weakness by gnawing such a well-hacked, clean-hacked skeleton of
meatlessbonessmearedwithblood?”
“No,venerablesir.Whyisthat?Becausethatwasaskeletonofwell-hacked,
clean-hacked meatless bones smeared with blood. Eventually that dog would
reapwearinessanddisappointment.”
“Sotoo,householder,anoblediscipleconsidersthus:‘Sensualpleasureshave
beencomparedtoaskeletonbytheBlessedOne;theyprovidemuchsuffering
andmuchdespair,whilethedangerinthemisstillmore.’Havingseenthisthus
asitreallyiswithproperwisdom,heavoidstheequanimitythatisdiversified,
basedondiversity,anddevelopstheequanimitythatisunified,basedonunity,
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whereclingingtothecarnalthingsoftheworldutterlyceaseswithoutremainder.
16.“Householder,supposeavulture,aheron,orahawkseizedapieceofmeat
andflewaway,andthenothervultures,herons,andhawkspursueditandpecked
andclawedit. Whatdo youthink, householder? Ifthat firstvulture,heron, or
hawk does not quickly let go of that piece of meat, wouldn’t it thereby incur
deathordeadlysuffering?”
“Yes,venerablesir.”
“Sotoo,householder,anoblediscipleconsidersthus:‘Sensualpleasureshave
been compared to a piece of meat by the Blessed One; they provide much
sufferingandmuchdespair,whilethedangerinthemisstillmore.’Havingseen
thisthusasitreallyiswithproperwisdom…clingingtothecarnalthingsofthe
worldutterlyceaseswithoutremainder.
17.“Householder,supposeamantookablazinggrasstorchandwentagainst
thewind.Whatdoyouthink,householder?Ifthatmandoesnotquicklyletgoof
thatblazinggrasstorch,wouldn’tthatblazinggrasstorchburnhishandorhis
arm or some other part of his body, so that he might incur death or deadly
sufferingbecauseofthat?”
“Yes,venerablesir.”
“Sotoo,householder,anoblediscipleconsidersthus:‘Sensualpleasureshave
beencomparedtoagrasstorchbytheBlessedOne;theyprovidemuchsuffering
andmuchdespair,whilethedangerinthemisstillmore.’Havingseenthisthus
asitreallyiswithproperwisdom…clingingtothecarnalthingsoftheworld
utterlyceaseswithoutremainder.
18. “Householder, suppose there were a charcoal pit deeper than a man’s
height full of glowing coals without flame or smoke. Then a man came who
wantedtoliveandnottodie,whowantedpleasureandrecoiledfrompain,and
twostrongmenseizedhimbybotharmsanddraggedhimtowardthatcharcoal
pit.Whatdoyouthink,householder?Wouldthatmantwisthisbodythisway
andthat?”“Yes,venerablesir.Whyisthat?Becausethatmanknowsthatifhe
falls into that charcoal pit, he will incur death or deadly suffering because of
that.”
“Sotoo,householder,anoblediscipleconsidersthus:‘Sensualpleasureshave
been compared to a charcoal pit by the Blessed One; they provide much
sufferingandmuchdespair,whilethedangerinthemisstillmore.’Havingseen
thisthusasitreallyiswithproperwisdom…clingingtothecarnalthingsofthe
worldutterlyceaseswithoutremainder.
19.“Householder,supposeamandreamedaboutlovelyparks,lovelygroves,
lovelymeadows,andlovelylakes,andonwakinghesawnothingofthem.So
too,householder,anoblediscipleconsidersthus:‘Sensualpleasureshavebeen
comparedtoadreambytheBlessedOne;theyprovidemuchsufferingandmuch
despair,whilethedangerinthemisstillmore.’Havingseenthisthusasitreally
iswithproperwisdom...clingingtothecarnalthingsoftheworldutterlyceases
withoutremainder.
20.“Householder,supposeamanborrowedgoodsonloan—afancycarriage
andfinejewelearrings—andprecededandsurroundedbythoseborrowedgoods
hewenttothemarketplace.Thenpeople,seeinghim,wouldsay:‘Sirs,thatisa
richman!Thatishowtherichenjoytheirwealth!’Thentheowners,whenever
theysawhim, would takebacktheir things.Whatdo youthink,householder?
Wouldthatbeenoughforthatmantobecomedejected?”
“Yes,venerablesir.Whyisthat?Becausetheownerstookbacktheirthings.”
“Sotoo,householder,anoblediscipleconsidersthus:‘Sensualpleasureshave
been compared to borrowed goods by the Blessed One; they provide much
sufferingandmuchdespair,whilethedangerinthemisstillmore.’Havingseen
thisthus as it reallyis with proper wisdom... clinging to carnalthings of the
worldutterlyceaseswithoutremainder.
21.“Householder,supposeadensegrovenotfarfromsomevillageortown
hadafruit-ladentree,noneofwhosefruithadfallentotheground.Thenaman
cameneedingfruit,seekingfruit,wanderinginsearchoffruit,andheenteredthe
groveandsawthetreeladenwithfruit.Thereuponhethought:‘Thistreeisladen
withfruitbutnoneofitsfruithasfallentotheground.Iknowhowtoclimba
tree,soletmeclimbthistree,eatasmuchfruitasIwant,andfillmybag.’And
hedidso.Then a secondmancameneedingfruit, seekingfruit,wanderingin
searchoffruit,andtakingasharpaxe,hetooenteredthegroveandsawthattree
ladenwithfruit.Thereuponhethought:‘Thistreeisladenwithfruitbutnoneof
itsfruithasfallentotheground.Idonotknowhowtoclimbatree,soletmecut
thistreedownatitsroot,eatasmuchfruitasIwant,andfillmybag.’Andhe
didso.Whatdoyouthink,householder?Ifthatfirstmanwhohadclimbedthe
treedoesn’tcomedownquickly,whenthetreefalls,wouldn’thebreakhishand
orfootorsomeotherpartofhisbody,sothathemightincurdeathordeadly
sufferingbecauseofthat?”
“Yes,venerablesir.”
“Sotoo,householder,anoblediscipleconsidersthus:‘Sensualpleasureshave
been compared to fruits on a tree by the Blessed One; they provide much
sufferingandmuchdespair,whilethedangerinthemisstillmore.’Havingseen
this thus as it really is with proper wisdom, he avoids the equanimity that is
diversified,basedondiversity,anddevelopstheequanimitythatisunified,based
onunity,whereclingingtothecarnalthingsoftheworldutterlyceaseswithout
remainder.”
(fromMN54:PotaliyaSutta;I364–66)
(2)TheFeverofSensualPleasures
10. “Māgandiya, formerly when I lived the household life, I enjoyed myself,
provided and endowed with the five cords of sensual pleasure: with forms
cognizable by the eye ... with sounds cognizable by the ear ... with odors
cognizablebythenose...withflavorscognizablebythetongue...withtactile
objects cognizable by the body that are wished for, desired, agreeable, and
likeable, connected with sensual desire and provocative of lust.
5
I had three
palaces,onefortherainyseason,oneforthewinter,andoneforthesummer.I
livedintherains’palaceforthefourmonthsoftherainyseason,enjoyingmyself
withmusicians,nonemale,andIdidnotgodowntothelowerpalace.
6
“On a later occasion, having understood as they really are the origin, the
passingaway,thegratification,thedanger,andtheescapeinthecaseofsensual
pleasures, I abandoned craving for sensual pleasures, I removed the fever of
sensualpleasures,andIdwellwithoutthirst,withamindinwardlyatpeace.Isee
otherpeoplewhoarenotfreefromlustforsensualpleasuresbeingdevouredby
craving for sensual pleasures, burning with the fever of sensual pleasures,
indulginginsensualpleasures,andIdonotenvythem,nordoIdelighttherein.
Why is that? Because there is, Māgandiya, a delight apart from sensual
pleasures, apart from unwholesome states, which surpasses even divine bliss.
7
Since I take delight in that, I do not envy what is inferior, nor do I delight
therein.
11. “Suppose, Māgandiya, a householder or a householders son was rich,
affluent,andwealthy,andbeing providedandendowed withthefive cords of
sensual pleasure, he mightenjoy himself with forms cognizable by the eye ...
withsoundscognizablebytheear...withodorscognizablebythenose...with
flavorscognizablebythetongue...withtactileobjectscognizablebythebody
that are wished for, desired, agreeable and likeable, connected with sensual
desireandprovocativeoflust.Havingconductedhimselfwellinbody,speech,
andmind,onthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,hemightbereborninagood
destination,inaheavenlyworldintheretinueoftheTāvatiṃsadevas;andthere,
surrounded by a group of nymphs in the Nandana Grove,
8
he would enjoy
himself provided and endowed with the fivecords ofdivine sensualpleasure.
Suppose he saw a householder or a householders son enjoying himself,
providedandendowedwiththefivecordsof[human]sensualpleasure.Whatdo
you think, Māgandiya? Would that young deva surrounded by the group of
nymphsintheNandanaGrove,enjoyinghimselfprovidedandendowedwiththe
fivecordsofdivinesensualpleasure,envythehouseholderorthehouseholders
son for the five cords of human sensual pleasure or would he be enticed by
humansensualpleasures?”
“No, Master Gotama. Why not? Because divine sensual pleasures are more
excellentandsublimethanhumansensualpleasures.”
12.“Sotoo,Māgandiya,formerlywhenIlivedthehouseholdlife,Ienjoyed
myself, provided and endowed with the five cords of sensual pleasure: with
formscognizablebytheeye...withtactileobjectscognizablebythebodythat
arewished for,desired, agreeable,and likeable,connected with sensual desire
andprovocativeoflust.Onalateroccasion,havingunderstoodastheyreallyare
thegratification,thedanger,andthe escape inthecaseof sensual pleasures,I
abandoned craving for sensual pleasures, I removed the fever of sensual
pleasures,andIdwellwithoutthirst,withamindinwardlyatpeace.Iseeother
people who are not free from lust for sensual pleasures being devoured by
craving for sensual pleasures, burning with the fever of sensual pleasures,
indulginginsensualpleasures,andIdonotenvythemnordoIdelighttherein.
Why is that? Because there is, Māgandiya, a delight apart from sensual
pleasures, apart from unwholesome states, which surpasses even divine bliss.
Since I take delight in that, I do not envy what is inferior, nor do I delight
therein.
13. “Suppose, Māgandiya, there was a leper with sores and blisters on his
limbs,being devoured by worms,scratching the scabs off the openings of his
woundswithhisnails,cauterizinghisbodyoveraburningcharcoalpit.Thenhis
friendsandcompanions,hiskinsmenandrelatives,wouldbringaphysicianto
treathim.The physicianwould make medicinefor him,andby meansof that
medicine the manwould be cured of his leprosyand would become well and
happy,independent,masterofhimself,abletogowherehelikes.Thenhemight
seeanotherleperwithsoresandblistersonhislimbs,beingdevouredbyworms,
scratchingthescabsofftheopeningsofhiswoundswithhisnails,cauterizing
hisbodyoveraburningcharcoalpit.Whatdoyouthink,Māgandiya?Wouldthat
manenvythatleperforhisburningcharcoalpitorhisuseofmedicine?”“No,
MasterGotama.Whyisthat?Becausewhenthereissickness,thereisneedfor
medicine,andwhenthereisnosicknessthereisnoneedformedicine.”
14. “So too, Māgandiya, formerlywhen I lived the household life ... [as in
§12] … Since I take delight in that, I do not envy what is inferior, nor do I
delighttherein.
15. “Suppose, Māgandiya, there was a leper with sores and blisters on his
limbs,being devoured by worms,scratching the scabs off the openings of his
woundswithhisnails,cauterizinghisbodyoveraburningcharcoalpit.Thenhis
friendsandcompanions,hiskinsmenandrelatives,broughtaphysiciantotreat
him. The physician would make medicine for him, and by means of that
medicine the manwould be cured of his leprosyand would become well and
happy, independent, master of himself, able to go where he likes. Then two
strong men would seize him by both arms and drag him toward a burning
charcoalpit.Whatdoyouthink,Māgandiya?Wouldthatmantwisthisbodythis
wayandthat?”“Yes,MasterGotama.Whyisthat?Becausethatfireisindeed
painfultotouch,hot,andscorching.”“Whatdoyouthink,Māgandiya?Isitonly
nowthatthatfireispainfultotouch,hot,andscorching,orpreviouslytoowas
thatfirepainfultotouch,hot,andscorching?”“MasterGotama,thatfireisnow
painfultotouch,hot,andscorching,andpreviouslytoothatfirewaspainfulto
touch,hot,andscorching.Forwhenthatmanwasaleperwithsoresandblisters
onhislimbs,beingdevouredbyworms,scratchingthescabsofftheopeningsof
hiswoundswithhisnails,hisfacultieswereimpaired;thus,thoughthefirewas
actuallypainfultotouch,heacquiredamistakenperceptionofitaspleasant.”
16.“Sotoo,Māgandiya,inthepastsensualpleasureswerepainfultotouch,
hot,andscorching;inthefuturesensualpleasureswillbepainfultotouch,hot,
andscorching; and now atpresent sensual pleasures arepainful to touch, hot,
andscorching.Butthesepeoplewhoarenotfreefromlustforsensualpleasures,
whoaredevouredbycravingforsensualpleasures,whoburnwiththefeverof
sensual pleasures, have faculties that are impaired; thus, though sensual
pleasures are actually painful to touch, they acquire a mistaken perception of
themaspleasant.
9
17. “Suppose, Māgandiya, there was a leper with sores and blisters on his
limbs,being devoured by worms,scratching the scabs off the openings of his
woundswithhisnails,cauterizinghisbodyoveraburningcharcoalpit;themore
he scratches the scabs and cauterizes hisbody, the fouler, more evil-smelling,
andmoreinfectedtheopeningsofhiswoundswouldbecome,yethewouldfind
acertainmeasureofsatisfactionandenjoymentinscratchingtheopeningsofhis
wounds. So too, Māgandiya, people who are not free from lust for sensual
pleasures,whoaredevouredbycravingforsensualpleasures,whoburnwiththe
fever of sensual pleasures, still indulge in sensual pleasures; the more they
indulge in sensual pleasures, the more their craving for sensual pleasures
increases and the more they are burned by the fever of sensual pleasures, yet
theyfindacertainmeasureofsatisfactionandenjoymentindependenceonthe
fivecordsofsensualpleasure.”
(fromMN75:MāgandiyaSutta;I504–8)
5.LIFEISSHORTANDFLEETING
“Longago,Omonks,therelivedareligiousteachernamedAraka,whowasfree
ofsensuallust.Hehadmanyhundredsofdisciples,andthiswasthedoctrinehe
taughttothem:
“‘Shortisthelifeofhumanbeings,Obrahmins,limitedandbrief;itisfullof
suffering,fulloftribulation.Thisoneshouldwiselyunderstand.Oneshoulddo
goodandliveapurelife;fornonewhoisborncanescapedeath.
“‘Just as a dew drop on the tip of a blade of grass will quickly vanish at
sunriseandwillnotlastlong;evenso,brahmins,ishumanlifelikeadewdrop.
Itisshort,limited,andbrief;itisfullofsuffering,fulloftribulation.Thisone
shouldwiselyunderstand.Oneshoulddogoodandliveapurelife;fornonewho
isborncanescapedeath.
“‘Justas,whenrainfallsfromtheskyinthickdrops,abubbleappearingon
thewaterwillquicklyvanishandwillnotlastlong;evenso,brahmins,ishuman
lifelikeawaterbubble.Itisshort...fornonewhoisborncanescapedeath.
“‘Justasalinedrawnonwaterwithastickwillquicklyvanishandwillnot
lastlong;evenso,brahmins,ishumanlifelikealinedrawnonwater.Itisshort
...fornonewhoisborncanescapedeath.
“‘Justasamountainstream,comingfromafar,swiftlyflowing,carryingalong
muchflotsam,willnot standstillfor a moment,aninstant, asecond,but will
rush on, swirl and flow forward; even so, brahmins, is human life like a
mountainstream.Itisshort…fornonewhoisborncanescapedeath.
“‘Justasastrongmanmightformalumpofspittleatthetipofhistongueand
spititoutwithease;evenso,brahmins,ishumanlifelikealumpofspittle.Itis
short...fornonewhoisborncanescapedeath.
“‘Justasapieceofmeatthrownintoanironpanheatedalldaywillquickly
burnupandwillnotlastlong;evenso,brahmins,ishumanlifelikethispieceof
meat.Itisshort...fornonewhoisborncanescapedeath.
“‘Justas,whenacowtobeslaughteredisledtotheshambles,whenevershe
liftsalegshewillbeclosertoslaughter,closertodeath;evenso,brahmins,is
humanlifelikecattledoomedtoslaughter;itisshort,limited,andbrief.Itisfull
ofsuffering,fulloftribulation.Thisoneshouldwiselyunderstand.Oneshould
dogoodandliveapurelife;fornonewhoisborncanescapedeath.’
“Butatthattime,Omonks,thehumanlifespanwas60,000years,andat500
yearsgirlswerereadyformarriage.Inthosedayspeoplehadbutsixafflictions:
cold,heat,hunger,thirst,excrement,andurine.Thoughpeoplelivedsolongand
hadsofewafflictions,thatteacherArakagavetohisdisciplessuchateaching:
‘Shortisthelifeofhumanbeings.…’
“Butnowadays,Omonks,onecouldrightlysay,‘Shortisthelifeofhuman
beings …’; for today one who lives long lives for a hundred years or a little
more.Andwhenlivingforahundredyears,itisjustforthreehundredseasons:a
hundredwinters,ahundredsummers,andahundredrains.Whenlivingforthree
hundred seasons, it is just for twelve hundred months: four hundred winter
months, four hundred summer months, and four hundred months of the rains.
When living for twelve hundred months, it is just for twenty-four hundred
fortnights: eight hundred fortnights of winter, eight hundred of summer, and
eighthundredoftherains.
“And when living for twenty-four hundred fortnights, it is just for 36,000
days:12,000 days of winter, 12,000 of summer, and 12,000 of the rains. And
whenlivingfor36,000days,heeatsjust72,000meals:24,000mealsinwinter,
24,000 in summer, and 24,000 in the rains. And this includes the taking of
mothers milk and the times without food. These are the times without food:
whenagitatedorgrievedorsick,whenobservingafast,orwhennotobtaining
anythingtoeat.
“Thus, O monks, I have reckoned the life of a centenarian:the limit of his
lifespan, the number of seasons, years, months, and fortnights, of days and
nights,ofhismealsandfoodlesstimes.
“Whatever should be done by a compassionate teacher who, out of
compassion,seeksthewelfareofhisdisciples,thatIhavedoneforyou.These
aretherootsoftrees,Omonks,theseareemptyhuts.Meditate,monks,donotbe
negligent,orelseyouwillregretitlater.Thisisourinstructiontoyou.”
(AN7:70;IV136–39)
6.FOURSUMMARIESOFTHEDHAMMA
26.TheVenerableRaṭṭhapālawenttoKingKoravya’sMigācīragardenandsat
downattherootofatreetopasstheday.
27.ThenKingKoravyaaddressedhisgamekeeperthus:“Goodgamekeeper,
tidyuptheMigācīraGardensothatwemaygotothepleasuregardentoseea
pleasing spot.”—“Yes, sire,” he replied. Now while he was tidying up the
Migācīra Garden, the gamekeeper saw the Venerable Raṭṭhapāla seated at the
rootofatreefortheday’sabiding.Whenhesawhim,hewenttoKingKoravya
and told him: “Sire, the Migācīra Garden has been tidied up. The clansman
Raṭṭhapālais there, the son ofthe leading clan in this sameThullakoṭṭhita,of
whomyouhavealwaysspokenhighly;heisseatedattherootofatreeforthe
day’sabiding.”
“Then,goodgamekeeper,enoughofthepleasuregardenfortoday.Nowwe
shallgotopayrespectstothatMasterRaṭṭhapāla.”
28.Then,saying:“Giveawayallthefoodthathasbeenpreparedthere,”King
Koravyahadanumberofstatecarriagesprepared,andmountingoneofthem,
accompaniedbytheothercarriages,hedroveoutfromThullakoṭṭhitawiththe
fullpompofroyaltytoseetheVenerableRaṭṭhapāla.Hedrovethusasfarasthe
roadwaspassableforcarriages,andthenhedismountedfromhiscarriageand
wentforwardonfootwithafollowingofthemosteminentofficialstowherethe
Venerable Raṭṭhapāla was. He exchanged greetings with the Venerable
Raṭṭhapāla,andwhenthiscourteousandamiabletalkwasfinished,hestoodat
onesideandsaid:“Hereisanelephantrug.LetMasterRaṭṭhapālabeseatedon
it.”
“Thereisnoneed,greatking.Sitdown.Iamsittingonmyownmat.”
KingKoravyasatdownonaseatmadereadyandsaid:
29. “Master Raṭṭhapāla, there are four kinds of loss. Because they have
undergone these four kinds of loss, some peoplehere shave offtheir hair and
beard, put on the ochre robe, and go forth from the household life into
homelessness. What are the four? They are loss through aging, loss through
sickness,lossofwealth,andlossofrelatives.
30. “And what is loss through aging? Here, Master Raṭṭhapāla, someone is
old, aged, burdened with years, advanced in life, come to the last stage. He
considersthus:‘Iamold,aged,burdenedwithyears,advancedinlife,cometo
thelaststage.Itisnolongereasyformetoacquirenewwealthortoaugment
wealthalreadyacquired.SupposeIshaveoffmyhairandbeard,putontheochre
robe,andgoforthfromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.’Becausehehas
undergonethatlossthroughaging,heshavesoffhishairandbeard,putsonthe
ochrerobe, and goes forth from the household life into homelessness. This is
called loss through aging. But Master Raṭṭhapāla is now still young, a black-
haired young man endowed with the blessing of youth, in the prime of life.
Master Raṭṭhapāla has not undergone any loss through aging. What has he
known, seen, or heard that he has gone forth from the household life into
homelessness?
31.“Andwhatislossthroughsickness?Here,MasterRaṭṭhapāla,someoneis
afflicted,suffering,andgravelyill.Heconsidersthus:‘Iamafflicted,suffering,
and gravely ill. It is no longer easy for me to acquire new wealth ... into
homelessness.’Becausehehasundergonethatlossthroughsickness…hegoes
forth from the household life into homelessness. This is called loss through
sickness. But Master Raṭṭhapāla now is free from illness and affliction; he
possessesagood digestionthat isneithertoo coolnor toowarm but medium.
Master Raṭṭhapāla has not undergone any loss through sickness. What has he
known, seen, or heard that he has gone forth from the household life into
homelessness?
32.“Andwhatislossofwealth?Here,MasterRaṭṭhapāla,someoneisrich,
affluent,andwealthy.Graduallyhis wealthdwindlesaway.Heconsiders thus:
‘FormerlyIwasrich,affluent,andwealthy.Graduallymywealthhasdwindled
away.Itisnolongereasyformetoacquirenewwealth...intohomelessness.’
Because he has undergone that loss of wealth ... he goes forth from the
household life into homelessness. This is called loss of wealth. But Master
Raṭṭhapāla is the son of the leading clan in this same Thullakoṭṭhita. Master
Raṭṭhapālahasnotundergoneanylossofwealth.Whathasheknown,seen,or
heardthathehasgoneforthfromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness?
33. “And what is loss of relatives? Here, Master Raṭṭhapāla, someone has
manyfriendsandcompanions,kinsmenandrelatives.Graduallythoserelatives
of his dwindle away. He considers thus: ‘Formerly I had many friends and
companions, kinsmen and relatives. Gradually those relatives of mine have
dwindled away. It is no longer easy for me to acquire new wealth ... into
homelessness.’Becausehehasundergonethatlossofrelatives…hegoesforth
fromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.Thisiscalledlossofrelatives.But
MasterRaṭṭhapālahasmanyfriendsandcompanions,kinsmenandrelatives,in
this same Thullakoṭṭhita. Master Raṭṭhapāla has not undergone any loss of
relatives. What has he known, seen, or heard thathe has gone forth from the
householdlifeintohomelessness?
34.“Master Raṭṭhapāla, theseare the four kinds of loss. Because they have
undergone these four kinds of loss, some peoplehere shave offtheir hair and
beard, put on the ochre robe, and go forth from the household life into
homelessness.MasterRaṭṭhapālahasnotundergoneanyofthese.Whathashe
known, seen, or heard that he has gone forth from the household life into
homelessness?”
35. “Great king, there are four summaries of the Dhamma that have been
taught by the Blessed One who knows and sees, the Arahant, the Perfectly
EnlightenedOne.Knowingandseeingandhearingthem,Iwentforthfromthe
householdlifeintohomelessness.Whatarethefour?
36. (1) “‘[Life in] any world is unstable, it is swept away’: this is the first
summaryoftheDhammataughtbytheBlessedOnewhoknowsandsees,the
Arahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne.Knowingandseeingandhearingthis,I
wentforthfromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.
(2)“‘[Lifein]anyworldhasnoshelterandnoprotector’:thisisthesecond
summaryoftheDhammataughtbytheBlessedOnewhoknowsandsees.…
(3)“‘[Lifein]anyworldhasnothingofitsown;onehastoleaveallandpass
on’:thisisthethirdsummaryoftheDhammataughtbytheBlessedOnewho
knowsandsees.…
(4)“‘[Lifein]anyworldisincomplete,insatiate,theslaveofcraving’:thisis
thefourthsummaryoftheDhammataughtbytheBlessedOnewhoknowsand
sees.…
37.“Greatking,thesearethefoursummariesoftheDhammathathavebeen
taught by the Blessed One who knows and sees, the Arahant, the Perfectly
EnlightenedOne.Knowingandseeingandhearingthem,Iwentforthfromthe
householdlifeintohomelessness.”
38.“MasterRaṭṭhapālasaid:‘[Lifein]anyworldisunstable,itissweptaway.’
Howshouldthemeaningofthatstatementbeunderstood?”
“Whatdoyouthink,greatking?Whenyouweretwentyortwenty-fiveyears
old, were you an expert rider of elephants, an expert horse-man, an expert
charioteer, an expert archer, an expert swordsman, strong in thighs and arms,
sturdy,capableinbattle?”
“Icertainlywas,MasterRaṭṭhapāla.SometimesIwonderifIhadsupernormal
powerthen.Idonotseeanyonewhocouldequalmeinstrength.”
“Whatdoyouthink,greatking?Areyounowasstronginthighsandarms,as
sturdyandascapableinbattle?”
“No,MasterRaṭṭhapāla.NowIamold,aged,burdenedwithyears,advanced
inlife,cometothelaststage;myyearshaveturnedeighty.SometimesImeanto
putmyfoothereandIputmyfootsomewhereelse.”
“Greatking,itwasonaccountofthisthattheBlessedOnewhoknowsand
sees,the Arahant,the PerfectlyEnlightened One, said: ‘[Lifein] anyworld is
unstable,itissweptaway’;andwhenIknew,saw,andheardthis,Iwentforth
fromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.”
“Itis wonderful,Master Raṭṭhapāla,it is marvelous how well thathas been
expressedbytheBlessedOnewhoknowsandsees,theArahant,thePerfectly
EnlightenedOne:‘[Lifein]anyworldisunstable,itissweptaway.’Itisindeed
so!
39.“MasterRaṭṭhapāla,thereexistinthiscourtelephanttroopsandcavalry
and chariot troops and infantry, which will serve to subdue any threats to us.
Now Master Raṭṭhapāla said: ‘[Life in] any world has no shelter and no
protector.’Howshouldthemeaningofthatstatementbeunderstood?”
“Whatdoyouthink,greatking?Doyouhaveanychronicailment?”
“Ihaveachronicwindailment,MasterRaṭṭhapāla.Sometimesmyfriendsand
companions, kinsmen and relatives, stand around me, thinking: ‘Now King
Koravyaisabouttodie,nowKingKoravyaisabouttodie!’”
“What do you think, great king? Can you command your friends and
companions, your kinsmen and relatives: ‘Come, my good friends and
companions, my kinsmen and relatives. All of you present share this painful
feelingsothatImayfeellesspain’?Ordoyouhavetofeelthatpainyourself
alone?”
“I cannot command my friends and companions, my kinsmen and relatives
thus,MasterRaṭṭhapāla.Ihavetofeelthatpainalone.”
“Greatking,itwasonaccountofthisthattheBlessedOnewhoknowsand
sees,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne,said:‘[Lifein]anyworldhas
noshelterandnoprotector’;andwhenIknew,saw,andheardthis,Iwentforth
fromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.”
“Itis wonderful,Master Raṭṭhapāla,it is marvelous how well thathas been
expressedbytheBlessedOnewhoknowsandsees,theArahant,the Perfectly
Enlightened One: ‘[Life in] any world has no shelter and no protector.’ It is
indeedso!
40. “Master Raṭṭhapāla, there exist in this court abundant gold coins and
bullionstoredawayinvaultsandlofts.NowMasterRaṭṭhapālasaid:‘[Lifein]
anyworldhasnothingofitsown;onehastoleaveallandpasson.’Howshould
themeaningofthatstatementbeunderstood?”
“What do you think, great king? You now enjoy yourself provided and
endowedwiththefivecordsofsensualpleasure,butcanyoubecertainthatin
the life to come you willlikewise enjoyyourself provided and endowed with
thesesamefivecordsofsensualpleasure?Orwillotherstakeoverthisproperty,
whileyouwillhavetopassonaccordingtoyouractions?”
“I cannot be certain of what will happen in the life to come, Master
Raṭṭhapāla.Onthecontrary,otherswilltakeoverthispropertywhileIshallhave
topassonaccordingtomyactions.”
“Greatking,itwasonaccountofthisthattheBlessedOnewhoknowsand
sees,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne,said:‘[Lifein]anyworldhas
nothingofitsown;onehastoleaveallandpasson’;andwhenIknew,saw,and
heardthis,Iwentforthfromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.”
“Itis wonderful,Master Raṭṭhapāla,it is marvelous how well thathas been
expressedbytheBlessedOnewhoknowsandsees,theArahant,thePerfectly
EnlightenedOne:‘[Lifein]anyworldhasnothingofitsown;onehastoleave
allandpasson.’Itisindeedso!
41.“NowMasterRaṭṭhapālasaid:‘[Lifein]anyworldisincomplete,insatiate,
theslaveofcraving.’Howshouldthemeaningofthatstatementbeunderstood?”
“Whatdoyouthink,greatking?DoyoureignovertherichKurucountry?”
“Yes,MasterRaṭṭhapāla,Ido.”
“Whatdoyouthink,greatking?Supposeatrustworthyandreliablemancame
toyoufromtheeastandsaid:‘Pleaseknow,greatking,thatIhavecomefrom
theeast,andthereIsawalargecountry,powerfulandrich,verypopulousand
crowded with people. There are plenty of elephant troops there, plenty of
cavalry,chariottroops,andinfantry;thereisplentyofivorythere,andplentyof
gold coins and bullion both unworked and worked, and plenty of women for
wives.Withyourpresentforcesyoucanconquerit.Conqueritthen,greatking.’
Whatwouldyoudo?”
“Wewouldconqueritandreignoverit,MasterRaṭṭhapāla.”
“Whatdoyouthink,greatking?Supposeatrustworthyandreliablemancame
toyoufromthewest...fromthenorth...fromthesouth...fromacrossthesea
andsaid: ‘Pleaseknow,great king, that I have comefrom acrossthe sea,and
thereIsawalargecountry,powerfulandrich.…Conqueritthen,greatking.’
Whatwouldyoudo?”
“Wewouldconquerittooandreignoverit,MasterRaṭṭhapāla.”
“Greatking,itwasonaccountofthisthattheBlessedOnewhoknowsand
sees,the Arahant,the PerfectlyEnlightened One, said: ‘[Lifein] anyworld is
incomplete, insatiate, the slave of craving’; and when I knew, saw, and heard
this,Iwentforthfromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.”
“Itis wonderful,Master Raṭṭhapāla,it is marvelous how well thathas been
expressedbytheBlessedOnewhoknowsandsees,theArahant,thePerfectly
Enlightened One: ‘[Life in] any world is incomplete, insatiate, the slave of
craving.’Itisindeedso!”
(fromMN82:RaṭṭhapālaSutta;II65–82)
7.THEDANGERINVIEWS
(1)AMiscellanyonWrongView
“Monks, I do not see even one other thing on account of which unarisen
unwholesomequalitiesofmindariseandarisenunwholesomequalitiesofmind
increaseandexpandsomuchasonaccountofwrongview.
10
Foroneofwrong
view, unarisen unwholesome qualities of mind arise and arisen unwholesome
qualitiesofmindincreaseandexpand.
“Monks, I do not see even one other thing on account of which unarisen
wholesome qualities of mind do not arise and arisen wholesome qualities of
minddiminishsomuchasonaccountofwrongview.Foroneofwrongview,
unarisen wholesome qualities of mind do not arise and arisen wholesome
qualitiesofminddiminish.
“Monks, I do not see even one other thing on account of which, with the
breakupofthebody,afterdeath,beingsarereborninastateofmisery,inabad
destination,inthelowerworld,inhell,somuchasonaccountofwrongview.
Possessing wrong view, with the breakup of the body, after death, beings are
reborninastateofmisery,inabaddestination,inthelowerworld,inhell.
“Monks, for a person of wrong view, whatever bodily, verbal, or mental
conduct he undertakes in accordance with that view, and whatever volition,
aspiration,wish,andvolitionalformationsheengendersinaccordancewiththat
view,allleadtowhatisundesirable,unwanted,anddisagreeable,toharmand
suffering. For what reason? Because the view is bad. Just as, when a seed of
neem,bittercucumber,orbittergourdisplantedinmoistsoil,ittransformsany
nutrimentitobtainsfromthesoilandthewaterintoafruitwithabitter,harsh,
anddisagreeabletaste,evensoisitforapersonofwrongview.Forwhatreason?
Becausetheviewisbad.”
(AN1:xvii,1,3,7,9;I30–32)
(2)TheBlindMenandtheElephant
On one occasion the Blessed One was living at Sāvatthī in Jeta’s Grove,
Anāthapiṇḍika’s Park. Now at that time a number of ascetics and brahmins,
wanderersofothersects,werelivingaroundSāvatthī.Theyheldvariousviews,
beliefs,andopinions,andpropagatedvariousviews.Andtheywerequarrelsome,
disputatious, wrangling, wounding each other with verbal darts, saying, “The
Dhammaislikethis,theDhammaisnotlikethat!TheDhammaisnotlikethis,
theDhammaislikethat!”
Then a number of monks entered Sāvatthī on almsround. Having returned,
aftertheirmealtheyapproachedtheBlessedOne,paidhomagetohim,satdown
tooneside,andtoldhimwhattheyhadseen.[TheBlessedOnesaid:]
“Monks,wanderersofothersectsareblindandsightless.Theydonotknow
whatisbeneficialandharmful.TheydonotknowwhatistheDhammaandwhat
isnottheDhamma,andthustheyaresoquarrelsomeanddisputatious.
“Formerly, monks, there was a king in Sāvatthī who addressed a man and
asked him to round up all the persons in the city who were blind from birth.
Whenthemanhaddoneso,thekingaskedthemantoshowtheblindmenan
elephant. To some of the blind men he presented the head of the elephant, to
sometheear,toothersatusk,thetrunk,thebody,afoot,thehindquarters,the
tail, or the tuft at the end of the tail. And to each one he said, ‘This is an
elephant.’
“Whenhereportedtothekingwhathehaddone,thekingwenttotheblind
menandaskedthem,‘Tellme,blindmen,whatisanelephantlike?’
“Thosewhohadbeenshowntheheadoftheelephantreplied,‘Anelephant,
yourmajesty,isjustlikeawaterjar.’Thosewhohadbeenshowntheearreplied,
‘Anelephantisjustlikeawinnowingbasket.’Thosewhohadbeenshownthe
tuskreplied,‘Anelephantisjustlikeaplowshare.’Thosewhohadbeenshown
thetrunk replied, ‘An elephant is just like a plow pole.’Those who had been
shownthebodyreplied,‘Anelephantisjustlikeastoreroom.’Andeachofthe
otherslikewisedescribedtheelephantintermsoftheparttheyhadbeenshown.
“Then, saying, ‘An elephant is like this, an elephant is not like that! An
elephantis not like this, an elephant is like that!’they fought each other with
theirfists. And the king was delighted.Even so, monks, are the wanderers of
othersectsblindandsightless,andthustheybecomequarrelsome,disputatious,
andwrangling,woundingeachotherwithverbaldarts.”
(Ud6:4;67–69)
(3)HeldbyTwoKindsofViews
“Monks,heldbytwokindsofviews,somedevasandhumanbeingsholdback
andsomeoverreach;onlythosewithvisionsee.
“Andhow, monks,dosomeholdback?Devasandhumanbeings delight in
existence,aredelightedwithexistence,rejoiceinexistence.WhentheDhamma
istaughttothemforthecessationofexistence,theirmindsdonotenterintoit,
acquireconfidenceinit,settleuponit,orresolveuponit.Thus,monks,dosome
holdback.
“Andhow,monks,dosomeoverreach?Nowsomearetroubled,ashamed,and
disgustedbythisverysameexistenceandtheyrejoiceinnonexistence,saying,
‘Inasmuchasthisself,goodsirs,isannihilatedanddestroyedwiththebreakup
ofthebodyanddoesnotexistafterdeath,thisispeaceful,thisisexcellent,this
isjustso!’Thus,monks,dosomeoverreach.
“Andhow,monksdothosewithvisionsee?Here,amonkseeswhathascome
to be as having come to be. Having seen it thus, he practices the course for
disenchantment,fordispassion,forthecessationofwhathascometobe.Thus,
monks,dothosewithvisionsee.”
(It49;43–44)
8.FROMTHEDIVINEREALMSTOTHEINFERNAL
“Monks,therearethesefourkindsofpersonsfoundexistingintheworld.What
four?
“Here,monks,somepersondwellspervadingonequarterwithamindimbued
withloving-kindness,likewisethesecondquarter,thethird,andthefourth.Thus
above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he dwells
pervading the entire world with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, vast,
exalted, measureless, without hostility, without ill will. He relishes it, takes a
likingtoit,andisthrilledbyit.Ifheisfirminit,resolvesuponit,oftendwells
init,andhasnotlostitwhenhedies,heisrebornincompanionshipwiththe
devas of Brahmā’s company. The lifespan of those devas is an eon. The
worldling remains there all his life, and when he has completed the entire
lifespanofthosedevas,hegoestohell,totheanimalrealm,andtothedomainof
spirits.ButtheBlessedOne’sdiscipleremainsthereallhislife,andwhenhehas
completedtheentirelifespanofthosedevas,heattainsfinalNibbānainthatvery
same state of existence. This is the difference, the disparity, the distinction
between the instructed noble disciple and the uninstructed worldling, that is,
withregardtodestinationandrebirth.
“Here,monks,somepersondwellspervadingonequarterwithamindimbued
with compassion, likewise the second quarter, the third, and the fourth. Thus
above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he dwells
pervadingtheentireworldwithamindimbuedwithcompassion,vast,exalted,
measureless,withouthostility,withoutillwill.Herelishesit,takesalikingtoit,
andisthrilledbyit.Ifheisfirminit,resolvesuponit,oftendwellsinit,andhas
not lost it when he dies, he is reborn in companionship with the devas of
streaming radiance. The lifespan of those devas is two eons. The worldling
remainsthereallhislife,andwhenhehascompletedtheentirelife-spanofthose
devas,hegoestohell,totheanimalrealm,andtothedomainofspirits.Butthe
BlessedOne’sdiscipleremainsthereallhislife,andwhenhehascompletedthe
entirelifespanofthosedevas,heattainsfinalNibbānainthatverysamestateof
existence. This is the difference, the disparity, the distinction between the
instructednoblediscipleandtheuninstructedworldling,thatis,withregardto
destinationandrebirth.
“Here,monks,somepersondwellspervadingonequarterwithamindimbued
with altruisticjoy, likewise the second quarter, the third, and the fourth. Thus
above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he dwells
pervadingtheentireworldwithamindimbuedwithaltruisticjoy,vast,exalted,
measureless,withouthostility,withoutillwill.Herelishesit,takesalikingtoit,
andisthrilledbyit.Ifheisfirminit,resolvesuponit,oftendwellsinit,andhas
not lost it when he dies, he is reborn in companionship with the devas of
refulgentglory.Thelifespanofthosedevasisfoureons.Theworldlingremains
thereallhislife,andwhenhehascompletedtheentirelife-spanofthosedevas,
hegoestohell,totheanimalrealm,andtothedomainofspirits.ButtheBlessed
One’sdiscipleremainsthereallhislife,andwhenhehascompletedtheentire
lifespan of those devas, he attains final Nibbāna in that very same state of
existence. This is the difference, the disparity, the distinction between the
instructednoblediscipleandtheuninstructedworldling,thatis,withregardto
destinationandrebirth.
“Here,monks,somepersondwellspervadingonequarterwithamindimbued
with equanimity, likewise the second quarter, the third, and the fourth. Thus
above, below, across, and everywhere, and to all as to himself, he dwells
pervadingtheentireworldwithamindimbuedwithequanimity,vast,exalted,
measureless,withouthostility,withoutillwill.Herelishesit,takesalikingtoit,
andisthrilledbyit.Ifheisfirminit,resolvesuponit,oftendwellsinit,andhas
notlostitwhenhedies,heisrebornincompanionshipwiththedevasofgreat
fruit.Thelifespanofthosedevasisfivehundredeons.Theworldlingremains
thereallhislife,andwhenhehascompletedtheentirelife-spanofthosedevas,
hegoestohell,totheanimalrealm,andtothedomainofspirits.ButtheBlessed
One’sdiscipleremainsthereallhislife,andwhenhehascompletedtheentire
lifespan of those devas, he attains final Nibbāna in that very same state of
existence. This is the difference, the disparity, the distinction between the
instructednoblediscipleandtheuninstructedworldling,thatis,withregardto
destinationandrebirth.
“These,monks,arethefourkindsofpersonsfoundexistingintheworld.”
(AN4:125;II128–29)
9.THEPERILSOFSAMSĀRA
(1)TheStreamofTears
“Monks, this saṃsāra is without discoverable beginning. A first point is not
discerned of beings roaming and wandering on hindered by ignorance and
fettered by craving. What do you think, monks, which is more: the stream of
tearsthatyouhaveshedasyouroamedandwanderedthroughthislongcourse,
weeping and wailing because of being united with the disagreeable and
separatedfromtheagreeable—thisorthewaterinthefourgreatoceans?”“As
weunderstandtheDhammataughtbytheBlessedOne,venerablesir,thestream
oftearsthatwehaveshedasweroamedandwanderedthroughthislongcourse,
weeping and wailing because of being united with the disagreeable and
separatedfromtheagreeable—thisaloneismorethanthewaterinthefourgreat
oceans.” “Good, good, monks! It is good that you understand the Dhamma
taught by me in such a way. The stream of tears that you have shed as you
roamedandwanderedthroughthislongcourse,weepingandwailingbecauseof
beingunitedwiththedisagreeableandseparatedfromtheagreeable—thisalone
ismorethanthewaterinthefourgreatoceans.Foralongtime,monks,youhave
experiencedthedeathofamother;asyouhaveexperiencedthis,weepingand
wailing because of being united with the disagreeable and separated from the
agreeable,thestreamoftearsthatyouhaveshedismorethanthewaterinthe
fourgreatoceans.
“Fora longtime, monks,you haveexperienced thedeath of a father... the
deathofabrother...thedeathofasister...thedeathofason...thedeathofa
daughter...thelossofrelatives...thelossofwealth...lossthroughillness;as
youhaveexperiencedthis,weepingandwailingbecauseofbeingunitedwiththe
disagreeableandseparatedfromtheagreeable,thestreamoftearsthatyouhave
shedismorethanthewaterinthefourgreatoceans.Forwhatreason?Because,
monks, this saṃsāra is without discoverable beginning…. Itis enough to
experience revulsion toward all formations, enough to become dispassionate
towardthem,enoughtobeliberatedfromthem.”
(SN15:3;II179–80)
(2)TheStreamofBlood
WhiletheBlessedOnewasdwellingatRājagahaintheBambooGrove,thirty
monks from Pāvā approached him—all forest dwellers, almsfood eaters, rag-
robe wearers, three-robe users, yet all still with fetters.
11
Having approached,
theypaidhomagetotheBlessedOneandsatdowntooneside.Thenitoccurred
to the Blessed One: “These thirty monks from Pāvā are all forest dwellers,
almsfoodeaters,rag-robewearers,three-robeusers,yetallarestillwithfetters.
LetmeteachthemtheDhammainsuchawaythatwhiletheyaresittinginthese
veryseatstheirmindswillbeliberatedfromthetaintsbynonclinging.”
12
ThentheBlessedOneaddressedthosemonksthus:“Monks!”
“Venerablesir!”thosemonksreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
“Monks,thissaṃsāraiswithoutdiscoverable beginning.Afirstpointisnot
discerned of beings roaming and wandering on, hindered by ignorance and
fettered by craving. What do you think, monks, which is more: the stream of
bloodthatyouhaveshedwhenyouwerebeheadedasyouroamedandwandered
throughthislongcourse—thisorthewaterinthefourgreatoceans?”
“AsweunderstandtheDhammataughtbytheBlessedOne,venerablesir,the
streamofbloodthatwehaveshedwhenwewerebeheadedasweroamedand
wanderedthroughthislongcourse—thisaloneismorethanthewaterinthefour
greatoceans.”
“Good,good,monks!ItisgoodthatyouunderstandtheDhammataughtby
meinsuchaway.Thestreamofbloodthatyouhaveshedasyouroamedand
wanderedthroughthislongcourse—thisaloneismorethanthewaterinthefour
greatoceans.Foralongtime,monks,youhavebeencows,andwhenascows
youwerebeheaded,thestreamofbloodthatyoushedisgreaterthanthewaters
inthefourgreatoceans.Foralong time you havebeenbuffalo,sheep,goats,
deer,chickens,andpigs….Foralongtimeyouhavebeenarrestedasburglars,
highwaymen,andadulterers,andwhenyouwerebeheaded,thestreamofblood
thatyoushedisgreaterthanthewaterinthefourgreatoceans.Forwhatreason?
Because,monks,thissaṃsāraiswithoutdiscoverablebeginning.Afirstpointis
notdiscernedofbeingsroamingandwanderingon,hinderedbyignoranceand
fettered by craving. For such a long time, monks, you have experienced
suffering, anguish, and disaster, and swelled the cemetery. It is enough to
become disenchanted with all formations, enough to become dispassionate
towardthem,enoughtobeliberatedfromthem.”
This is what the Blessed One said. Elated, those monks delighted in the
BlessedOne’sstatement.Andwhilethisexpositionwasbeingspoken,theminds
ofthethirtymonksfromPāvāwereliberatedfromthetaintsbynonclinging.
(SN15:13;II187–89)
VII.ThePathtoLiberation
INTRODUCTION
Inthischapter,wecometotheuniquedistinguishingfeatureoftheBuddha’s
teaching, its “supramundane” or “world-transcending” (lokuttara) path to
liberation. This path buildsupon the transformed understanding and deepened
perspective on the nature of the world that arise from our recognition of the
perilsinsensualpleasures,theinevitabilityofdeath,andtheviciousnatureof
saṃsāra, themes that we surveyed in the previous chapter. It aims to lead the
practitionertothestateofliberationthatliesbeyondallrealmsofconditioned
existence,tothesamesorrowlessandstainlessblissofNibbānathattheBuddha
himselfattainedonthenightofhisenlightenment.
ThischapterpresentstextsthatofferabroadoverviewoftheBuddha’sworld-
transcendingpath;thefollowingtwochapterswillbringtogethertextsthatfocus
morefinelyonthetrainingofthemindandthecultivationofwisdom,thetwo
majorbranchesof the world-transcendingpath.I begin,however,withseveral
suttasthatareintendedtoclarifythepurposeofthispath,illuminatingitfrom
differentangles.TextVII,1(1), The Shorter Discourse to Māluṅkyāputta (MN
63),showsthattheBuddhistpathisnotdesignedtoprovidetheoreticalanswers
tophilosophicalquestions.InthissuttathemonkMāluṅkyāputtaapproachesthe
Buddhaanddemandsanswerstotenspeculativequestions,threateningtoleave
the Saṅgha if this demand isnot satisfied.Scholars have debated whether the
Buddha refused to answer such questions because they are in principle
unanswerableorsimplybecausetheyareirrelevanttoapracticalresolutionof
theproblemofsuffering.TwocollectionsofsuttasintheSaṃyuttaNikāya—SN
33:1–10andSN44:7–8—makeitclearthattheBuddha’s“silence”hadadeeper
basisthanmerepragmaticconcerns.These suttas showthatallsuchquestions
are based on an underlying assumption that existence is to be interpreted in
termsofaselfandaworldinwhichtheselfissituated.Sincethesepremisesare
invalid,noanswerframedintermsofthesepremisescanbevalid,andthusthe
Buddhamustrejecttheveryquestionsthemselves.
However,whiletheBuddhahadphilosophicalgroundsforrefusingtoanswer
thesequestions,healsorejectedthembecauseheconsideredtheobsessionwith
theirsolutionstobeirrelevanttothequestforreleasefromsuffering.Thisreason
is the evident point of the discourse to Māluṅkyāputta, with its well-known
simileofthemanshotbythepoisonedarrow.Whetheranyoftheseviewsistrue
ornot,theBuddhasays,“thereisbirth,thereisaging,thereisdeath,thereare
sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair, the destruction of which I
prescribe here and now.” Against the picture of the saṃsāric background
sketched at the end of the previous chapter, this statement now takes on an
expandedmeaning:the“destructionofbirth,aging,anddeath”isnotmerelythe
endofsufferinginasinglelifetime,buttheendoftheimmeasurablesufferingof
repeatedbirth,aging,anddeaththatwehaveundergoneinthecountlesseonsof
saṃsāra.
TextVII,1(2),TheGreater Discourse on the Simileof theHeartwood (MN
29), clarifies from a different angle the Buddha’s purpose in expounding his
world-transcending Dhamma. The sutta is about a “clansman” who has gone
forth from the household life into homelessness intenton reaching the end of
suffering.Thoughearnestinpurposeatthetimeofhisordination,onceheattains
somesuccess, whether a lowerachievement like gain and honor or a superior
one like concentration and insight, he becomes complacent and neglects his
originalpurposeinenteringtheBuddha’spath.TheBuddhadeclaresthatnone
of these stations along the way—not moral discipline, concentration, or even
knowledge and vision—is the final goal of the spiritual life. The goal, its
heartwoodoressentialpurpose,is“unshakableliberationofthemind,”andhe
urgesthosewhohaveenteredthepathnottobesatisfiedwithanythingless.
TextVII,1(3)isaselectionofsuttasfrom“TheConnectedDiscoursesonthe
Path” (Maggasạyutta). These suttas state that the purpose of practicing the
spiritual life under the Buddha is “the fading away of lust, … final Nibbāna
withoutclinging,”theNobleEightfoldPathbeingthewaytoattaineachofthese
aims.
TheNobleEightfoldPathistheclassicalformulationofthewaytoliberation,
as is already clear from the Buddha’s first sermon, in which he calls the
Eightfold Path the way to the cessation of suffering. Text VII,2 gives formal
definitionsoftheindividualpathfactorsbutdoesnotshowconcretelyhowtheir
practiceistobeintegratedintothelifeofadisciple.Thedetailedapplicationwill
befilledoutlaterinthischapterandinchaptersVIIIandIX.
TextVII,3throwsadifferentspotlightonthepaththanweareaccustomedto
hearinstandardBuddhistrhetoric.Whileweareoftentoldthatthepracticeof
theBuddhistpathdependsentirelyonpersonaleffort,thissuttaemphasizesthe
importanceofspiritualfriendship.TheBuddhadeclaresthatspiritualfriendship
is not merely “half the spiritual life” but the whole of it, for the endeavor to
attain spiritual perfection is not a purely solitary enterprise but occurs in
dependenceonclosepersonalties.Spiritualfriendshipgivesthepracticeofthe
Dhamma an inescapably human dimension and welds the body of Buddhist
practitioners into a community united both vertically by the relationship of
teacher to students and horizontally by friendships among peers treading a
sharedpath.
Contrarytoacommonassumption,theeightpathfactorsarenotstepstobe
followedinsequence,oneafteranother.Theyaremoreappropriatelydescribed
as components than as steps. Optimally, all eight factors should be present
simultaneously, each making its own distinctive contribution, like eight
interwovenstrandsofacablethatgivethecablemaximumstrength.However,
untilthatstageisreached,itisinevitablethatthefactorsofthepathexhibitsome
degree of sequence in their development. The eight factors are commonly
distributedintothreegroupsasfollows:
1.themoraldisciplinegroup(sīlakkhandha),madeupofrightspeech,right
action,andrightlivelihood;
2.theconcentrationgroup(sam̄dhikkhandha),madeupofrighteffort,right
mindfulness,andrightconcentration;
3. the wisdom group (paññākkhandha), made up of right view and right
intention.
WithintheNikāyas,however,thiscorrelationoccursonlyonce(atMN44;I
301),whereitisascribedtothenunDhammadinnā,nottotheBuddhahimself.It
mightbesaidthatthetwowisdomfactorsareplacedatthebeginningbecausea
preliminaryrightviewandrightintentionarerequiredattheoutsetofthepath,
right view providing the conceptual understanding of Buddhist principles that
guides the development of the other path factors, right intention the proper
motivationanddirectionforthedevelopmentofthepath.
In the Nikāyas, the Buddha often expounds the practice of the path as a
gradualtraining(anupubbasikkhā)thatunfoldsinstagesfromthefirststeptothe
finalgoal.Thisgradualtrainingisafinersubdivisionofthethreefolddivisionof
the path into moral discipline, concentration, and wisdom. Invariably in the
suttas the exposition of the gradual training begins with the going forth into
homelessnessandtheadoptionofthelifestyleofabhikkhu,aBuddhistmonk.
This immediately calls attention to the importance of the monastic life in the
Buddha’s pragmatic vision. In principle the entire practice of the Noble
EightfoldPathisopentopeoplefromanymodeoflife,monasticorlay,andthe
Buddhaconfirmsthatmanyamonghislayfollowerswereaccomplishedinthe
Dhammaandhadattainedthefirstthreeofthefourstagesofawakening,upto
nonreturning (an̄ḡm̄; Theravāda commentators say that lay followers can also
attainthefourthstage,arahantship,buttheydosoeitheronthevergeofdeathor
afterattainmentimmediatelyseekthegoingforth).Thefactremains,however,
thatthehouseholdlifeinevitablyfostersamultitudeofmundaneconcernsand
personal attachments that impede the single-hearted quest for liberation. Thus
when the Buddha set out on his own noble quest he did so by going into
homelessness,andafterhisenlightenment,asapracticalwaytohelpothers,he
established the Saṅgha, the order of monks and nuns, for those who want to
devotethemselvesfullytotheDhamma unhindered bythecaresofhousehold
life.
The gradual training occurs in two versions: a longer version in the Dīgha
Nikāya and a middle-length version in the Majjhima Nikāya. The principal
differences are: (1) the longer version has a more detailed treatment of the
observancesthatpertaintomonasticetiquetteandasceticself-restraint;(2)the
longerversionincludeseighttypesofhigherknowledgewhilethemiddle-length
versionhasthreetypes.However,asthesethreetypesaretheonesmentionedin
theBuddha’saccountofhisownenlightenment(seeTextII,3(2)),theyareby
farthemostimportant.Themainparadigmforthelongerversionofthegradual
trainingisfoundatDN2;themiddle-lengthversionisatMN27andMN51,
with variants at MN 38, MN 39, MN 53, MN 107, and MN 125. Here, Text
VII,4includesthewholeofMN27,whichembedsthetraininginthesimileof
theelephant’sfootprintthatgivesthesuttaitsname.TextVII,5,anexcerptfrom
MN 39, repeats the higher stages of the training as described in MN 27, but
includestheimpressivesimilesnotincludedinthelatterversion.
ThesequenceopenswiththeappearanceofaTathāgataintheworldandhis
exposition of the Dhamma. Having heard this, the disciple acquires faith and
followstheTeacherintohomelessness.Hethenundertakestherulesofdiscipline
thatpromotethepurificationofconductandtherightlivelihoodofanascetic.
The next three steps—contentment, restraint of the sense faculties, and
mindfulness and clear comprehension—internalize the process of purification
andtherebybridgethetransitionfrommoraldisciplinetoconcentration.
The section on the abandonment of the five hindrances deals with the
preliminary training in concentration. The five hindrances—sensual desire, ill
will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness and remorse, and doubt—are the
principalobstaclestomeditativedevelopment,andthustheymustberemoved
forthemindtobecomecollectedandunified.Thestockpassageonthegradual
training treats the overcoming of the hindrances only schematically, but other
texts in the Nikāyas provide more practical instructions, while the Pāli
commentariesofferevenmoredetails.ThesimilesintheversionofMN39—see
TextVII,5—illustratethejoyfulsenseoffreedomthatonewinsbyovercoming
thehindrances.
The next stage in the sequence describes the attainment of the jhānas,
profoundstatesofconcentrationinwhichthemindbecomesfullyabsorbedinits
object.TheBuddhaenumeratesfourjhānas,namedsimplyaftertheirnumerical
positionintheseries,eachmorerefinedandelevatedthanitspredecessor.The
jhānasarealwaysdescribedbythesameformulas,whichinseveralsuttasare
augmentedbysimilesofgreatbeauty;again,seeTextVII,5.Althoughwisdom
ratherthanconcentrationisthecriticalfactorintheattainmentofenlightenment,
theBuddhainvariablyincludesthejhānasinthegradualtrainingforatleasttwo
reasons:first,becausetheycontributetotheintrinsicperfectionofthepath;and
second, because the deep concentration they induce serves as a basis for the
arisingofinsight.TheBuddhacallsthejhānasthe“footstepsoftheTathāgata”
(MN27.19–22)andshowsthemtobeprecursorsoftheblissofNibbānathatlies
attheendofthetraining.
Fromthefourthjhānathreealternativelinesoffurtherdevelopmentbecome
possible.Inanumberoftextsoutsidethestockpassageonthegradualtraining
theBuddhamentionsfourmeditativestatesthatcontinuethementalunification
established by the jhānas. These states, described as “the liberations that are
peacefulandformless,”arefurtherrefinementsofconcentration.Distinguished
fromthejhānasbytheirtranscendenceofthesubtlementalimagethatservesas
theobjectinthejhānas,theyarenamedthebaseoftheinfinityofspace,thebase
oftheinfinityofconsciousness,thebaseofnothingness,andthebaseofneither-
perception-nor-nonperception.
Asecond lineof development is the acquisitionof supernormalknowledge.
TheBuddhafrequentlyreferstoasetofsixtypes,whichcometobecalledthe
sixkindsofdirectknowledge(chaḷabhiññā).Thelastofthese,theknowledgeof
thedestructionofthetaints,is“supramundane”orworld-transcendingandthus
markstheculminationofthethirdlineofdevelopment.Buttheotherfiveareall
mundane, products of the extraordinarily powerful mental concentration
achievedinthefourthjhāna:thesupernormalpowers,thedivineear,theability
toreadthemindsofothers,therecollectionofpastlives,andtheknowledgeof
thepassingawayandrebirthofbeings(seeTextVIII,4).
The jhānas and the formless attainments by themselves do not issue in
enlightenmentandliberation.Thoughloftyandpeaceful,theycanonlysilence
thedefilementsthatsustaintheroundofrebirthsbutcannoteradicatethem.To
uproot the defilements at the most fundamental level, and thereby arrive at
enlightenmentandliberation,themeditativeprocessmustbedirectedtoathird
line of development. This is the contemplation of “things as they really are,”
which results in increasingly deeper insights into the nature of existence and
culminatesinthefinalgoal,theattainmentofarahantship.
ThislineofdevelopmentistheonetheBuddhapursuesinthepassageonthe
gradual training. He prefaces it with descriptions of two of the direct
knowledges, the recollection of past lives and the knowledge of the passing
away and rebirth of beings. The three together figured prominently in the
Buddha’sownenlightenment—aswesawinTextII,3(2)—andarecollectively
calledthethreetrueknowledges(tevijjā).Althoughthefirsttwoarenotessential
to the realization of arahantship, the Buddha probably includes them here
because they reveal the truly vast and profound dimensions of suffering in
saṃsāra,therebypreparingthemindforthepenetrationoftheFourNobleTruths
bywhichthatsufferingisdiagnosedandsurmounted.
Thepassageonthegradualtrainingdoesnotexplicitlyshowtheprocessof
contemplation by which the meditator develops insight. The whole process is
only implied by the mention of its final fruit, called the knowledge of the
destruction of the taints (āsavakkhayañāṇa). The āsavas or taints are a
classification of defilements considered in their role of sustaining the forward
movementoftheprocessofbirthanddeath.Thecommentariesderivetheword
fromarootsumeaning“toflow.”Scholarsdifferastowhethertheflowimplied
bytheprefixāisinwardoroutward;hencesomehaverendereditas“influxes”
or“influences,”othersas“outflows”or“effluents.”Astockpassageinthesuttas
indicates the term’s real significance independently of etymology when it
describes the āsavas as states “that defile, bring renewal of existence, give
trouble,ripeninsuffering,andleadtofuturebirth,aging,anddeath”(MN36.47;
I 250). Thus other translators, bypassing the literal meaning, have rendered it
“cankers,”“corruptions,”or“taints.”ThethreetaintsmentionedintheNikāyas
are respectively synonyms for craving for sensual pleasures, craving for
existence,andignorance.Whenthedisciple’smindisliberatedfromthetaints
bythecompletionofthepathofarahantship,hereviewshisnewlywonfreedom
and roars his lion’s roar: “Birth is destroyed, the spiritual life has been lived,
whathadtobedonehasbeendone;thereisnomorecomingbacktoanystateof
being.”
VII.THEPATHTOLIBERATION
1.WHYDOESONEENTERTHEPATH?
(1)TheArrowofBirth,Aging,andDeath
1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatSāvatthīin
Jeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’sPark.
2. Then, while the Venerable Māluṅkyāputta was alone in meditation, the
followingthoughtaroseinhismind:
“ThesespeculativeviewshavebeenleftundeclaredbytheBlessedOne,set
asideandrejectedbyhim,namely:‘theworldiseternal’and‘theworldisnot
eternal’;‘theworldisfinite’and‘theworldisinfinite’;‘thesoulisthesameas
thebody’ and‘the soulisone thingand thebody another’;and ‘afterdeath a
Tathāgataexists’and‘afterdeathaTathāgatadoesnotexist’and‘afterdeatha
Tathāgata both exists and does not exist’ and ‘after death a Tathāgata neither
existsnordoesnotexist.’
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TheBlessedOnedoesnotdeclarethesetome,andI
donotapproveofandacceptthisfact,soIshallgototheBlessedOneandask
himthemeaningofthis.Ifhedeclarestomeeither‘theworldiseternal’…or
‘after death aTathāgata neither exists nor doesnot exist,’then Iwill lead the
spirituallifeunderhim;ifhedoesnotdeclarethesetome,thenIwillabandon
thetrainingandreturntothelowerlife.”
3. Then, when it was evening, the Venerable Māluṅkyāputta rose from
meditation and went to the Blessed One. After paying homage to him, he sat
downatonesideandtoldhim:
“Here,venerablesir,whileIwasaloneinmeditation,thefollowingthought
arose in my mind: ‘These speculativeviews have been left undeclared by the
Blessed One.… If he does not declare these to me, then I will abandon the
training and return to the lower life.’ If the Blessed One knows ‘the world is
eternal,’lettheBlessedOnedeclaretome‘theworldiseternal’;iftheBlessed
One knows ‘the world is not eternal,’ let the Blessed One declare to me ‘the
world is not eternal.’ If the Blessed One does not know either ‘the world is
eternal’or‘theworldisnoteternal,’thenitisstraightforwardforonewhodoes
notknowandseetosay:‘Idonotknowandsee.’
“IftheBlessedOneknows‘theworldisfinite,’…‘theworldisinfinite,...
‘thesoulisthesameasthebody,’...‘thesoulisonethingandthebodyanother,’
…‘afterdeathaTathāgataexists,’…’afterdeathaTathāgatadoesnotexist.’…
IftheBlessedOneknows‘afterdeathaTathāgatabothexistsanddoesnotexist,’
lettheBlessedOnedeclarethattome;iftheBlessedOneknows‘afterdeatha
Tathāgataneitherexistsnordoesnotexist,’lettheBlessedOnedeclarethatto
me.IftheBlessedOnedoesnotknoweither‘afterdeathaTathāgatabothexists
anddoesnotexist’or‘afterdeathaTathāgataneitherexistsnordoesnotexist,’
thenitisstraightforwardforonewhodoesnotknowandseetosay:‘Idonot
knowandsee.’”
4.“Howthen,Māluṅkyāputta,didIeversaytoyou:‘Come,Māluṅkyāputta,
leadthespirituallifeundermeandIwilldeclaretoyou“theworldiseternal”…
or“afterdeathaTathāgataneitherexistsnordoesnotexist”’?”—“No,venerable
sir.”—“Didyouevertellme:‘IwillleadthespirituallifeundertheBlessedOne,
andtheBlessedOnewilldeclaretome“theworldiseternal”…or“afterdeatha
Tathāgata neither exists nor does not exist”’?”—“No, venerable sir.”—“That
beingso,misguidedman,whoareyouandwhatareyouabandoning?
5. “If anyone should say thus: ‘I will not lead the spiritual life under the
BlessedOneuntiltheBlessedOnedeclarestome“theworldiseternal”…or
“after death a Tathāgata neither exists nor does not exist,”’ that would still
remain undeclared by the Tathāgata and meanwhile that person would die.
Suppose, Māluṅkyāputta, a man were wounded by an arrow thickly smeared
withpoison,andhisfriendsandcompanions,hiskinsmenandrelatives,brought
asurgeontotreathim.Themanwouldsay:‘Iwillnotletthesurgeonpullout
this arrow until I know whether the man who wounded me was a khattiya, a
brahmin,amerchant,oraworker.’Andhewouldsay:‘Iwillnotletthesurgeon
pulloutthisarrowuntilIknowthenameandclanofthemanwhowoundedme;
…untilIknowwhetherthemanwhowoundedmewastall,short,orofmiddle
height;…untilIknowwhetherthemanwhowoundedmewasdark,brown,or
golden-skinned;…untilIknowwhetherthemanwhowoundedmelivesinsuch
avillage,town,orcity;…untilIknowwhetherthebowthatwoundedmewasa
longboworacrossbow;…untilIknowwhetherthebowstringthatwoundedme
was fiber, reed, sinew, hemp, or bark;… until I know whether the shaft that
woundedmewaswildorcultivated;…untilIknowwithwhatkindoffeathers
the shaft that wounded me was fitted—whether those of a vulture, a heron, a
hawk,apeacock,orastork;…untilIknowwithwhatkindofsinewtheshaft
that wounded me was bound—whether that of an ox, a buffalo, a deer, or a
monkey; … until I know what kind of arrowhead it was that wounded me—
whether spiked or razor-tipped or curved or barbed or calf-toothed or lancet-
shaped.’
“Allthiswouldstillnotbeknowntothatman,andmeanwhilehewoulddie.
Sotoo,Māluṅkyāputta,ifanyoneshouldsaythus:‘Iwillnotleadthespiritual
lifeundertheBlessedOneuntiltheBlessedOnedeclarestome:“theworldis
eternal”…or “afterdeath aTathāgata neitherexists nordoes not exist,”’ that
wouldstillremainundeclaredbytheTathāgataandmeanwhilethatpersonwould
die.
6.“Māluṅkyāputta,ifthereistheview‘theworldiseternal,’thespirituallife
cannotbelived;andifthereistheview‘theworldisnoteternal,thespiritual
lifecannotbelived.Whetherthereistheview‘theworldiseternal’ortheview
‘theworldisnoteternal,’thereisbirth,thereisaging,thereisdeath,thereare
sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair, the destruction of which I
prescribehereandnow.
“Ifthereistheview‘theworldisfinite’...‘theworldisinfinite’‘thesoulis
thesameasthebody’...‘thesoulisonethingandthebodyanother…‘after
deathaTathāgataexists’…‘afterdeathaTathāgatadoesnotexist,’thespiritual
lifecannotbelived.…Ifthereistheview‘afterdeathaTathāgatabothexists
and does not exist,’ the spiritual life cannot be lived; and if there is the view
‘afterdeathaTathāgataneitherexistsnordoesnotexist,’thespirituallifecannot
belived.Whetherthereistheview‘afterdeathaTathāgatabothexistsanddoes
notexist’ortheview‘afterdeathaTathāgataneitherexistsnordoesnotexist,’
thereisbirth,thereisaging,thereisdeath,therearesorrow,lamentation,pain,
dejection,anddespair,thedestructionofwhichIprescribehereandnow.
7. “Therefore, Māluṅkyāputta, remember what I have left undeclared as
undeclared,andrememberwhatIhavedeclaredasdeclared.AndwhathaveI
leftundeclared?‘Theworldiseternal’—Ihaveleftundeclared.‘Theworldisnot
eternal’—Ihaveleftundeclared.‘Theworldisfinite’—Ihaveleftundeclared.
‘The world is infinite’—I have left undeclared. ‘The soul is the same as the
body’—Ihaveleftundeclared.‘Thesoulisonethingandthebodyanother’—I
have left undeclared. ‘After death aTathāgata exists’—I have left undeclared.
‘AfterdeathaTathāgatadoesnotexist’—Ihaveleftundeclared.‘Afterdeatha
Tathāgatabothexistsanddoesnotexist’—Ihaveleftundeclared.‘Afterdeatha
Tathāgataneitherexistsnordoesnotexist’—Ihaveleftundeclared.
8. “Why have I left that undeclared? Because it is unbeneficial, it does not
belong to the fundamentals of the spiritual life, it does not lead to
disenchantment, to dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to direct knowledge, to
enlightenment,toNibbāna.ThatiswhyIhaveleftitundeclared.
9.“AndwhathaveIdeclared?‘Thisissuffering’—Ihavedeclared.‘Thisis
theoriginofsuffering’—Ihavedeclared.‘Thisisthecessationofsuffering’—I
have declared. ‘This is the way leading to the cessation of suffering’—Ihave
declared.
10. “Why have I declared that? Because it is beneficial, it belongs to the
fundamentals of the spiritual life, it leads todisenchantment, to dispassion,to
cessation,topeace,todirectknowledge,toenlightenment,toNibbāna.Thatis
whyIhavedeclaredit.
“Therefore, Māluṅkyāputta, remember what I have left undeclared as
undeclared,andrememberwhatIhavedeclaredasdeclared.”
ThatiswhattheBlessedOnesaid.TheVenerableMāluṅkyāputtawassatisfied
anddelightedintheBlessedOne’swords.
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(MN63:CūḷamāluṅkyaSutta;I426–32)
(2)TheHeartwoodoftheSpiritualLife
1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatRājagaha
onMountVulturePeak;itwassoonafterDevadattahadleft.
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There,referringto
Devadatta,theBlessedOneaddressedthemonksthus:
2.“Monks,heresomeclansmangoesforthoutoffaithfromthehouseholdlife
into homelessness, considering: ‘I am a victim of birth, aging, and death, of
sorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair;Iamavictimofsuffering,a
prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this whole mass of suffering can be
known.’Whenhehasgoneforththus,heacquiresgain,honor,andrenown.He
ispleasedwiththatgain,honor, andrenown,andhisintentionisfulfilled.On
account of it he lauds himself and disparages others thus: ‘I obtain gain and
renown, but these other monks are unknown, of no account.’ He becomes
intoxicated with that gain, honor, and renown, grows negligent, falls into
negligence,andbeingnegligent,helivesinsuffering.
“Supposeamanneedingheartwood,seekingheartwood,wanderinginsearch
of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of heartwood. Passing
overitsheartwood,itssapwood,itsinnerbark,anditsouterbark,hewouldcut
offitstwigsandleavesandtakethemawaythinkingtheywereheartwood.Then
amanwithgoodsight,seeinghim,mightsay:‘Thisgoodmandidnotknowthe
heartwood,thesapwood,theinnerbark,theouterbark,orthetwigsandleaves.
Thus, while needing heartwood, seeking heartwood, wandering in search of
heartwood,hecametoagreattreestandingpossessedofheartwood,andpassing
overitsheartwood,itssapwood,itsinnerbark,anditsouterbark,hecutoffits
twigsandleavesandtookthemawaythinkingtheywereheartwood.Whateverit
wasthisgoodmanhadtomakewithheartwood,hispurposewillnotbeserved.’
Sotooisitwiththismonkwhobecomesintoxicatedwiththatgain,honor,and
renown. This monk is called one who has taken the twigs and leaves of the
spirituallifeandstoppedshortwiththat.
3.“Here,monks,someclansmangoesforthoutoffaithfromthehousehold
lifeintohomelessness,considering:‘Iamavictimofbirth,aging,anddeath,of
sorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair;Iamavictimofsuffering,a
prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this whole mass of suffering can be
known.’Whenhehasgoneforththus,heacquiresgain,honor,andrenown.He
isnotpleasedwiththatgain,honor,andrenown,andhisintentionisnotfulfilled.
Hedoesnot, onaccountof it,laudhimselfand disparageothers.He doesnot
become intoxicated with that gain, honor, and renown; he does not grow
negligentandfallintonegligence.Beingdiligent,heachievestheattainmentof
moraldiscipline.Heispleasedwiththatattainmentofmoraldisciplineandhis
intention is fulfilled. On account of it he lauds himself and disparages others
thus:‘Ihavemoraldiscipline;Iamofgoodcharacter;buttheseothermonksare
immoral, of bad character.’ He becomes intoxicated with that attainment of
moraldiscipline,growsnegligent,fallsintonegligence,andbeingnegligent,he
livesinsuffering.
“Supposeamanneedingheartwood,seekingheartwood,wanderinginsearch
of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of heartwood. Passing
overitsheartwood, its sapwood,andits innerbark,he wouldcutoffitsouter
barkandtakeitawaythinkingitwasheartwood.Thenamanwithgoodsight,
seeinghim,mightsay:‘Thisgoodmandidnotknowtheheartwood…orthe
twigsandleaves.Thus,whileneedingheartwood…hecutoffitsouterbarkand
tookitawaythinkingitwasheartwood.Whateveritwasthisgoodmanhadto
makewithheartwood,hispurposewillnotbeserved.’Sotooisitwiththismonk
whobecomesintoxicatedwiththatattainmentofmoraldiscipline.Thismonkis
calledonewhohastakentheouterbarkofthespirituallifeandstoppedshort
withthat.
4.“Here,monks,someclansmangoesforthoutoffaithfromthehousehold
lifeintohomelessness,considering:‘Iamavictimofbirth,aging,anddeath,of
sorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair;Iamavictimofsuffering,a
prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this whole mass of suffering can be
known.’Whenhehasgoneforththus,heacquiresgain,honor,andrenown.He
isnotpleasedwiththatgain,honor,andrenown,andhisintentionisnotfulfilled.
…Beingdiligent,heachievestheattainmentofmoraldiscipline.Heispleased
withthatattainmentofmoraldiscipline,buthisintentionisnotfulfilled.Hedoes
not, on account of it, laud himself and disparage others. He does not become
intoxicatedwiththatattainmentofmoraldiscipline;hedoesnotgrownegligent
and fall into negligence. Being diligent, he achieves the attainment of
concentration. He is pleased with that attainment of concentration and his
intention is fulfilled. On account of it he lauds himself and disparages others
thus:‘Iamconcentrated;mymindisunified;buttheseothermonksarescatter-
minded,withtheirmindsastray.’Hebecomesintoxicatedwiththatattainmentof
concentration, grows negligent, falls into negligence, and being negligent, he
livesinsuffering.
“Supposeamanneedingheartwood,seekingheartwood,wanderinginsearch
of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of heartwood. Passing
overitsheartwoodanditssapwood,hewouldcutoffitsinnerbarkandtakeit
awaythinkingitwasheartwood.Thenamanwithgoodsight,seeinghim,might
say: ‘This good man did not know the heartwood … or the twigs and leaves.
Thus, while needing heartwood … he cut off its inner bark and took it away
thinking it was heartwood. Whatever it was this good man had to make with
heartwood, his purpose will not be served.’ So too is it with this monk who
becomesintoxicatedwiththatattainmentofconcentration.Thismonkiscalled
onewhohastakentheinnerbarkofthespirituallifeandstoppedshortwiththat.
5.“Here,monks,someclansmangoesforthoutoffaithfromthehousehold
lifeintohomelessness,considering:‘Iamavictimofbirth,aging,anddeath,of
sorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair;Iamavictimofsuffering,a
prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this whole mass of suffering can be
known.’Whenhehasgoneforththus,heacquiresgain,honor,andrenown.He
isnotpleasedwiththatgain,honor,andrenown,andhisintentionisnotfulfilled.
…Beingdiligent,heachievestheattainmentofmoraldiscipline.Heispleased
with that attainment of moral discipline, but his intention is not fulfilled.…
Beingdiligent,heachievestheattainmentofconcentration.Heispleasedwith
thatattainmentofconcentration,buthisintentionisnotfulfilled.Hedoesnot,on
accountofit,laudhimselfanddisparageothers.Hedoesnotbecomeintoxicated
withthatattainmentofconcentration;hedoesnotgrownegligentandfallinto
negligence. Being diligent, he achieves knowledge and vision.
4
He is pleased
withthatknowledgeandvisionandhisintentionisfulfilled.Onaccountofithe
laudshimselfanddisparagesothersthus:‘Iliveknowingandseeing,butthese
othermonks live unknowing and unseeing.’ He becomes intoxicated with that
knowledge and vision, grows negligent, falls into negligence, and being
negligent,helivesinsuffering.
“Supposeamanneedingheartwood,seekingheartwood,wanderinginsearch
of heartwood, came to a great tree standing possessed of heartwood. Passing
overitsheartwood,hewouldcutoffitssapwoodandtakeitawaythinkingitwas
heartwood.Thenamanwithgoodsight,seeinghim,mightsay:‘Thisgoodman
did not know the heartwood ... or the twigs and leaves. Thus, while needing
heartwood…hecutoffitssapwoodandtookitawaythinkingitwasheartwood.
Whateveritwasthisgoodmanhadtomakewithheartwood,hispurposewillnot
be served.’ So too is it with this monk who becomes intoxicated with that
knowledgeandvision.Thismonkiscalledonewhohastakenthesapwoodof
thespirituallifeandstoppedshortwiththat.
6.“Here,monks,someclansmangoesforthoutoffaithfromthehousehold
lifeintohomelessness,considering:‘Iamavictimofbirth,aging,anddeath,of
sorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair;Iamavictimofsuffering,a
prey to suffering. Surely an ending of this whole mass of suffering can be
known.’Whenhehasgoneforththus,heacquiresgain,honor,andrenown.He
isnotpleasedwiththatgain,honor,andrenown,andhisintentionisnotfulfilled.
… When he is diligent, he achieves the attainment of moral discipline. He is
pleasedwiththatattainmentofmoraldiscipline,buthisintentionisnotfulfilled.
… When he is diligent, he achieves the attainment of concentration. He is
pleasedwiththatattainmentofconcentration,buthisintentionisnotfulfilled.…
Whenheisdiligent,heachievesknowledgeandvision.Heispleasedwiththat
knowledgeandvision,buthisintentionisnotfulfilled.Hedoesnot,onaccount
ofit, laudhimself anddisparage others.He doesnot becomeintoxicated with
thatknowledgeandvision;hedoesnotgrownegligentandfallintonegligence.
Beingdiligent,heattainsperpetualemancipation.Anditisimpossibleforthat
monktofallawayfromthatperpetualliberation.
5
“Supposeamanneedingheartwood,seekingheartwood,wanderinginsearch
ofheartwood,cametoagreattreestandingpossessedofheartwood,andcutting
offonlyitsheartwood,hewouldtakeitawayknowingitwasheartwood.Thena
man with good sight, seeing him, might say: ‘This good man knew the
heartwood,thesapwood,theinnerbark,theouterbark,andthetwigsandleaves.
Thus, while needing heartwood, seeking heartwood, wandering in search of
heartwood,hecametoagreattreestandingpossessedofheartwood,andcutting
offonlyitsheartwood,hetookitawayknowingitwasheartwood.Whateverit
wasthisgoodmanhadtomakewithheartwood,hispurposewillbeserved.’So
tooisitwiththismonkwhoattainsperpetualliberation.
7.“Sothisspirituallife,monks,doesnothavegain,honor,andrenownforits
benefit,ortheattainmentofmoraldisciplineforitsbenefit,ortheattainmentof
concentrationforitsbenefit,orknowledgeandvisionforitsbenefit.Butitisthis
unshakableliberationofmindthatisthegoalofthisspirituallife,itsheartwood,
anditsend.”
6
ThatiswhattheBlessedOnesaid.Themonksweresatisfiedanddelightedin
theBlessedOne’swords.
(MN29:MahāsāropamaSutta;I192–97)
(3)TheFadingAwayofLust
“Monks,ifwanderersofothersectsaskyou:‘Forwhatpurpose,friends,isthe
spiritual life lived under the ascetic Gotama?’—being asked thus, you should
answerthemthus:‘Itis,friends,forthefadingawayoflust
7
thatthespirituallife
islivedundertheBlessedOne.’
“Then,monks,ifthewanderersofothersectsaskyou:‘But,friends,istherea
path,awayforthefadingawayoflust?’—beingaskedthus,youshouldanswer
themthus:‘Thereisapath,friends,awayforthefadingawayoflust.’
“Andwhat,monks,isthatpath,thatwayforthefadingawayoflust?Itisthis
Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right intention, right speech, right
action,rightlivelihood,righteffort,rightmindfulness,rightconcentration.This
isthepath,thewayforthefadingawayoflust.
“Beingaskedthus,monks,youshouldanswerthosewanderersofothersects
insuchaway.
“[Or else you may answer them:] ‘It is, friends, for the abandoning of the
fetters … for the uprooting of the underlying tendencies … for the full
understandingofthecourse[ofsaṃsāra]…forthedestructionofthetaints
fortherealizationofthefruitoftrueknowledgeandliberation…forthesakeof
knowledgeandvision…forthesakeoffinalNibbānawithoutclingingthatthe
spirituallifeislivedundertheBlessedOne.’
“Then,monks,ifthewanderersofothersectsaskyou:‘But,friends,istherea
path, a way for attaining final Nibbāna without clinging?’—being asked thus,
youshouldanswerthemthus:‘Thereisapath,friends,awayforattainingfinal
Nibbānawithoutclinging.’
“Andwhat,monks,isthatpath,thatwayforattainingfinalNibbānawithout
clinging? It is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view … right
concentration. This is the path, the way for attaining final Nibbāna without
clinging.
“Beingaskedthus,monks,youshouldanswerthosewanderersofothersects
insuchaway.”
(SN45:41–48,combined;V27–29)
2.ANALYSISOFTHEEIGHTFOLDPATH
“Monks,IwillteachyoutheNobleEightfoldPath,andIwillanalyzeitforyou.
Listenandattendclosely;Iwillspeak.”
“Yes,venerablesir,”thosemonksreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
“Andwhat,monks,istheNobleEightfoldPath?Rightview,rightintention,
right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and
rightconcentration.
“Andwhat,monks,isrightview?Knowledgeofsuffering,knowledgeofthe
originof suffering,knowledgeof the cessationof suffering,knowledgeof the
wayleadingtothecessationofsuffering:thisiscalledrightview.
“Andwhat,monks,isrightintention?Intentionofrenunciation,intentionof
non–illwill,intentionofharmlessness:thisiscalledrightintention.
“Andwhat,monks,isrightspeech?Abstinencefromfalsespeech,abstinence
from malicious speech, abstinence from harsh speech, abstinence from idle
chatter:thisiscalledrightspeech.
“And what, monks, is right action? Abstinence from the destruction of life,
abstinencefrom taking what is not given,abstinence from sexual misconduct:
thisiscalledrightaction.
“And what, monks, is right livelihood? Here a noble disciple, having
abandonedawrong modeoflivelihood,earns hislivingby arightlivelihood:
thisiscalledrightlivelihood.
“Andwhat,monks,isrighteffort?Here,monks,amonkgeneratesdesirefor
thenonarisingofunarisenevilunwholesomestates;hemakesaneffort,arouses
energy,applieshismind,andstrives.Hegeneratesdesirefortheabandoningof
arisenevilunwholesomestates….Hegeneratesdesireforthearisingofunarisen
wholesome states…. He generates desire for the continuation of arisen
wholesomestates,fortheirnondecline,increase,expansion,andfulfillmentby
development;hemakesaneffort,arousesenergy,applieshismind,andstrives.
Thisiscalledrighteffort.
“And what, monks is right mindfulness? Here, monks, a monk dwells
contemplating the body in the body, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful,
having removed longing and dejection in regard to the world. He dwells
contemplating feelings in feelings, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful,
having removed longing and dejection in regard to the world. He dwells
contemplating mind in mind, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having
removedlonginganddejectioninregardtotheworld.Hedwellscontemplating
phenomena in phenomena, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having
removed longing and dejection in regard to the world. This is called right
mindfulness.
“And what, monks, is right concentration? Here, monks, secluded from
sensualpleasures,secludedfromunwholesomestates,amonkentersanddwells
in the first jhāna, which is accompanied by thought and examination, with
rapture and happiness born of seclusion. With the subsiding of thought and
examination, he enters and dwells in the second jhāna, which has internal
confidenceandunificationofmind,iswithoutthoughtandexamination,andhas
rapture and happiness born of concentration. With the fading away as well of
rapture, he dwells equanimous and, mindful and clearly comprehending, he
experienceshappinesswiththebody;heentersanddwellsinthethirdjhānaof
which the noble ones declare: ‘He is equanimous, mindful, one who dwells
happily.’ With the abandoning of pleasure and pain, and with the previous
passing away of joy and dejection, he enters and dwells in the fourth jhāna,
whichisneitherpainfulnorpleasantandincludesthepurificationofmindfulness
byequanimity.Thisiscalledrightconcentration.”
(SN45:8;V8–10)
3.GOODFRIENDSHIP
ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingamongthe
Sakyans where there was a town of the Sakyans named Nāgaraka. Then the
VenerableĀnandaapproachedtheBlessedOne,paidhomagetohim,satdown
tooneside,andsaid:
“Venerablesir,thisishalfofthespirituallife,thatis,goodfriendship,good
companionship,goodcomradeship.”
8
“Notso,Ānanda!Notso,Ānanda!Thisistheentirespirituallife,Ānanda,that
is,goodfriendship,goodcompanionship,goodcomradeship.Whenamonkhas
agoodfriend,agoodcompanion,agoodcomrade,itistobeexpectedthathe
willdevelopandcultivatetheNobleEightfoldPath.
“And how, Ānanda,does a monk with a goodfriend, a good companion, a
goodcomrade,developandcultivatetheNobleEightfoldPath?Here,Ānanda,a
monk develops right view, which is based upon seclusion, dispassion, and
cessation, maturing in release. He develops right intention … right speech
right action … right livelihood … right effort ... right mindfulness … right
concentration, which is based upon seclusion, dispassion, and cessation,
maturinginrelease.Itisinthisway,Ānanda,thatamonkwithagoodfriend,a
goodcompanion,agoodcomrade,developsandcultivatestheNobleEightfold
Path.
“Bythefollowingmethodtoo,Ānanda,itmaybeunderstoodhowtheentire
spiritual life is good friendship, good companionship, good comradeship: by
relyinguponmeasagoodfriend,Ānanda,beingssubjecttobirtharefreedfrom
birth;beingssubjecttoagingarefreedfromaging;beingssubjecttodeathare
freed from death; beings subject to sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and
despairarefreedfromsorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair.Bythis
method, Ānanda, it may be understood how the entire spiritual life is good
friendship,goodcompanionship,goodcomradeship.”
(SN45:2;V2–3)
4.THEGRADUATEDTRAINING
1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatSāvatthīin
Jeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’sPark.
2.NowonthatoccasionthebrahminJāṇussoṇiwasdrivingoutofSāvatthīin
themiddleofthedayinanall-whitechariotdrawnbywhitemares.Hesawthe
wandererPilotikacominginthedistanceandaskedhim:“NowwhereisMaster
Vacchāyanacomingfrominthemiddleoftheday?”
9
“Sir,IamcomingfromthepresenceoftheasceticGotama.”
“What does Master Vacchāyana think of the ascetic Gotama’s lucidity of
wisdom?Heiswise,ishenot?”
“Sir,whoamItoknowtheasceticGotama’slucidityofwisdom?Onewould
surelyhavetobehisequaltoknowtheasceticGotama’slucidityofwisdom.”
“MasterVacchāyanapraisestheasceticGotamawithhighpraiseindeed.”“Sir,
whoam Ito praisethe asceticGotama? The asceticGotama ispraised bythe
praised as best among devas and humans.” “What reasons does Master
VacchāyanaseethathehassuchfirmconfidenceintheasceticGotama?”
3.“Sir,supposeawiseelephanthunterweretoenteranelephantwoodand
weretoseeintheelephantwoodabigelephant’sfootprint,longinextentand
broad across. He would come to the conclusion: ‘Indeed, this is a big bull
elephant.’Sotoo,whenIsawfourfootprintsoftheasceticGotama,Icametothe
conclusion: ‘The Blessed One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well
expoundedbytheBlessedOne,theSaṅghaispracticingthegoodway.’Whatare
thefour?
4. “Sir, I have seen here certain learned nobles who were clever,
knowledgeableaboutthedoctrinesofothers,assharpashairsplittingmarksmen;
theywanderabout,asitwere,demolishingtheviewsofotherswiththeirsharp
wits.Whentheyhear:‘TheasceticGotamawillvisitsuchandsuchavillageor
town,’theyformulateaquestionthus:‘WewillgototheasceticGotamaandask
himthisquestion.Ifheisaskedlikethis,hewillanswerlikethis,andsowewill
refutehisdoctrineinthisway;andifheisaskedlikethat,hewillanswerlike
that,and so we will refute his doctrine in thatway.’ “They hear: ‘The ascetic
Gotama has come to visit such and such a village or town.’ They go to the
ascetic Gotama, and the ascetic Gotama instructs, urges, rouses, and gladdens
themwithatalkontheDhamma.Aftertheyhavebeeninstructed,urged,roused,
andgladdenedbytheasceticGotamawithatalkontheDhamma,theydonotso
muchasaskhimthequestion,sohowshouldtheyrefutehisdoctrine?Inactual
fact, they become his disciples. When I saw this first footprint of the ascetic
Gotama,Icametotheconclusion:‘TheBlessedOneisperfectlyenlightened,the
Dhamma is well expounded by the Blessed One, the Saṅgha is practicing the
goodway.’
5.“Again,Ihaveseencertainlearnedbrahminswhowereclever.…Inactual
fact, they too become his disciples. When I saw this second footprint of the
ascetic Gotama, I came to the conclusion: ‘The Blessed One is perfectly
enlightened.…’
6. “Again, I have seen certain learned householders who were clever.… In
actualfact,theytoobecomehisdisciples.WhenIsawthisthirdfootprintofthe
ascetic Gotama, I came to the conclusion: ‘The Blessed One is perfectly
enlightened.…’
7.“Again,Ihaveseencertainlearnedasceticswhowereclever.…Theydo
notsomuchasaskhimthequestion,sohowshouldtheyrefutehisdoctrine?In
actual fact, they ask the ascetic Gotama to allow them to go forth from the
householdlifeintohomelessness,andhegivesthemthegoingforth.Notlong
after they have gone forth, dwelling alone, withdrawn, diligent, ardent, and
resolute,byrealizingitforthemselveswithdirectknowledgetheyhereandnow
enterupon and dwell inthat supreme goal ofthe spiritual life for the sake of
whichclansmenrightlygoforthfromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.They
saythus:‘Wewereverynearlylost,weverynearlyperished,forformerlywe
claimedthatwewereasceticsthoughwewerenotreallyascetics;weclaimed
thatwewerebrahminsthoughwewerenotreallybrahmins;weclaimedthatwe
werearahantsthoughwewerenotreallyarahants.Butnowweareascetics,now
wearebrahmins,nowwearearahants.’WhenIsawthisfourthfootprintofthe
ascetic Gotama, I came to the conclusion: ‘The Blessed One is perfectly
enlightened.…’
“When I saw these four footprints of the ascetic Gotama, I came to the
conclusion: ‘The Blessed One is perfectly enlightened, the Dhamma is well
expoundedbytheBlessedOne,theSaṅghaispracticingthegoodway.’”
8. When this was said, the brahmin Jāṇussoṇi got down from his all-white
chariotdrawnbywhitemares,andarranginghisupperrobeononeshoulder,he
extendedhishandsinreverentialsalutationtowardtheBlessedOneanduttered
this exclamation three times: “Homage to the Blessed One, the Arahant, the
Perfectly Enlightened One! Homage to the Blessed One, the Arahant, the
Perfectly Enlightened One! Homage to the Blessed One, the Arahant, the
Perfectly Enlightened One! Perhaps some time or other I might meet Master
Gotamaandhavesomeconversationwithhim.”
9. Then the brahmin Jāṇussoṇi went to the Blessed One and exchanged
greetingswithhim.Whenthiscourteousandamiabletalkwasfinished,hesat
downtoonesideandrelatedhisentireconversationwiththewandererPilotika.
ThereupontheBlessedOnetoldhim:“Atthispoint,brahmin,thesimileofthe
elephant’s footprint has not yet been completed in detail. As to how it is
completedindetail,listenandattendcarefullytowhatIshallsay.”—“Yes,sir,”
thebrahminJāṇussoṇireplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
10.“Brahmin,supposeanelephanthunterweretoenteranelephantwoodand
weretoseeintheelephantwoodabigelephant’sfootprint,longinextentand
broad across. A wise elephant hunter would not yet come to the conclusion:
‘Indeed,thisisabigbullelephant.’Whyisthat?Inanelephantwoodthereare
small she-elephants that leave a big footprint, and this might be one of their
footprints.Hefollowsitandseesintheelephantwoodabigelephant’sfootprint,
longinextentandbroadacross,andsomescrapingshighup.Awiseelephant
hunterwouldnotyetcometotheconclusion:‘Indeed,thisisabigbullelephant.
Why is that? In an elephant wood there are tall she-elephants that have
prominent teeth and leave a big footprint, and this might be one of their
footprints.Hefollowsitfurtherandseesintheelephantwoodabigelephant’s
footprint, long in extent and broad across, and some scrapings high up, and
marks made by tusks. A wise elephant hunter would not yet come to the
conclusion: ‘Indeed, this is a big bull elephant.’ Why is that? In an elephant
woodtherearetallshe-elephantsthathavetusksandleaveabigfootprint,and
this might be one of their footprints. He follows it further and sees in the
elephantwoodabigelephant’sfootprint,longinextentandbroadacross,and
somescrapingshighup,andmarksmadebytusks,andbroken-offbranches.And
he sees that bull elephant at the root of a tree or in the open, walking about,
sitting, or lying down. He comes to the conclusion: ‘This is that big bull
elephant.’
11. “So too, brahmin, here a Tathāgata appears in the world, an arahant,
perfectlyenlightened,perfectintrueknowledgeandconduct,fortunate,knower
oftheworld,unsurpassedleaderofpersonstobetamed,teacherofdevasand
humans,theEnlightened One,the BlessedOne. Having realizedwith hisown
directknowledgethisworldwithitsdevas,Māra,andBrahmā,thispopulation
withitsasceticsandbrahmins,withitsdevasandhumans,hemakesitknownto
others.HeteachesaDhammathatisgoodinthebeginning,goodinthemiddle,
andgoodintheend,withtherightmeaningandexpression;herevealsaholy
lifethatisperfectlycompleteandpurified.
12.“Ahouseholderorhouseholderssonoroneborninsomeotherclanhears
that Dhamma. On hearing the Dhamma he acquires faith in the Tathāgata.
Possessingthatfaith,heconsidersthus:‘Householdlifeiscrowdedanddusty;
lifegoneforthiswideopen.Itisnoteasy,whilelivinginahome,toleadthe
spirituallifeutterlyperfectandpureasapolishedshell.SupposeIshaveoffmy
hairandbeard,putontheochrerobe,andgoforthfromthehouseholdlifeinto
homelessness.’ On a later occasion, abandoning a small or a large fortune,
abandoningasmalloralargecircleofrelatives,heshavesoffhishairandbeard,
putsontheochrerobe,andgoesforthfromthehouseholdlifeintohomelessness.
13.“Havingthusgoneforthandpossessingthemonk’strainingandwayof
life,abandoningthedestructionoflife,heabstainsfromthedestructionoflife;
with rod and weapon laid aside, conscientious, merciful, he dwells
compassionatetoalllivingbeings.Abandoningthetakingofwhatisnotgiven,
heabstainsfromtakingwhatisnotgiven;takingonlywhatisgiven,expecting
only what is given, by not stealing he dwells in purity. Abandoning sexual
relations,heobservescelibacy,livingapart,refrainingfromthecoarsepractice
ofsexualintercourse.
“Abandoning false speech, he abstains from false speech; he speaks truth,
adherestotruth,istrustworthyandreliable,onewhoisnodeceiveroftheworld.
Abandoningmaliciousspeech,heabstainsfrommaliciousspeech;hedoesnot
repeatelsewherewhathehasheardhereinordertodivide[thosepeople]from
these,nordoesherepeattothesepeoplewhathehasheardelsewhereinorderto
divide [these people] from those; thus he is one who reunites those who are
divided, a promoter of friendships, who enjoys concord, rejoices in concord,
delightsinconcord,aspeakerofwordsthatpromoteconcord.Abandoningharsh
speech, he abstains from harsh speech; he speaks such words as are gentle,
pleasingto theear,and loveable,as go to the heart, are courteous, desired by
many and agreeable to many. Abandoning idle chatter, he abstains from idle
chatter;hespeaksattherighttime,speakswhatisfact,speaksonwhatisgood,
speaks on the Dhamma and the Discipline; at the right time he speaks such
wordsasareworthrecording,reasonable,moderate,andbeneficial.
“He abstains from injuring seeds and plants. He eats only one meal a day,
abstainingfromeatingatnightandoutsidethepropertime.
10
Heabstainsfrom
dancing, singing, music, and unsuitable shows. He abstains from wearing
garlands, smartening himself with scent, and embellishing himself with
unguents.Heabstainsfromhighandlargecouches.Heabstainsfromaccepting
gold and silver. He abstains from accepting raw grain. He abstains from
acceptingrawmeat.Heabstainsfromacceptingwomenandgirls.Heabstains
fromacceptingmenand women slaves. He abstains from accepting goats and
sheep. He abstains from accepting fowl and pigs. He abstains from accepting
elephants,cattle,horses,andmares.Heabstainsfromacceptingfieldsandland.
He abstains from going on errands and running messages. He abstains from
buying and selling. He abstains from false weights, false metals, and false
measures. He abstains from accepting bribes, deceiving, defrauding, and
trickery.Heabstainsfromwounding,murdering,binding,brigandage,plunder,
andviolence.
14.“Hebecomescontentwithrobestoprotecthisbodyandwithalmsfoodto
maintainhisstomach,andwhereverhegoes,hesetsouttakingonlythesewith
him.Justasabird,whereveritgoes,flieswithitswingsasitsonlyburden,so
toothemonkbecomescontentwithrobestoprotecthisbodyandwithalmsfood
to maintain his stomach, and wherever he goes, he sets out taking only these
with him. Possessing this aggregate of noble moral discipline, he experiences
withinhimselftheblissofblamelessness.
15. “On seeing a form with the eye, he does not grasp at its signs and
features.
11
Since,ifhelefttheeyefacultyunguarded,evilunwholesomestatesof
longinganddejectionmightinvadehim,hepracticesthewayofitsrestraint,he
guardstheeyefaculty,heundertakestherestraintoftheeyefaculty.Onhearing
asoundwiththeear...Onsmellinganodorwiththenose...Ontastingaflavor
withthetongue…Onfeelingatactileobjectwiththebody...Oncognizinga
mentalphenomenonwiththemind,hedoesnotgraspatitssignsandfeatures.
Since,ifheleftthemindfacultyunguarded,evilunwholesomestatesoflonging
anddejectionmightinvadehim,hepracticesthewayofitsrestraint,heguards
themindfaculty,heundertakestherestraintofthemindfaculty.Possessingthis
noblerestraintofthesensefaculties,heexperienceswithinhimselfanunsullied
bliss.
16.“Hebecomesonewhoactswithclearcomprehensionwhengoingforward
and returning; who acts with clear comprehension when looking ahead and
lookingaway;whoactswithclearcomprehensionwhenflexingandextending
his limbs; who acts with clear comprehension when wearing his robes and
carrying his outer robe and bowl; who acts with clear comprehension when
eating,drinking,chewing,andtasting;whoactswithclearcomprehensionwhen
defecating and urinating; who acts with clear comprehension when walking,
standing,sitting,fallingasleep,wakingup,talking,andkeepingsilent.
17. “Possessing this aggregate of noble moral discipline, and this noble
restraint of the faculties, and possessing this noble mindfulness and clear
comprehension,heresortstoa secludedrestingplace:theforest,the rootofa
tree,amountain,aravine,ahillsidecave,acharnelground,ajunglethicket,an
openspace,aheapofstraw.
18.“Onreturningfromhisalmsround,afterhismealhesitsdown,foldinghis
legscrosswise,settinghisbodyerect,andestablishingmindfulnessbeforehim.
Abandoninglongingfortheworld,hedwellswithamindfreefromlonging;he
purifieshismindfromlonging.
12
Abandoningillwillandhatred,hedwellswith
amindfreefromillwill,compassionateforthewelfareofalllivingbeings;he
purifieshismindfromillwillandhatred.Abandoningdullnessanddrowsiness,
he dwells free from dullness and drowsiness, percipient of light, mindful and
clearly comprehending; he purifies his mind from dullness and drowsiness.
Abandoningrestlessnessandremorse,hedwellsfreefromagitationwithamind
inwardly peaceful; he purifies his mind from restlessness and remorse.
Abandoning doubt, he dwells having gone beyond doubt, unperplexed about
wholesomestates;hepurifieshismindfromdoubt.
19. “Having thus abandoned these five hindrances, defilements of themind
that weaken wisdom, secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from
unwholesome states, he enters and dwells in the first jhāna, which is
accompaniedby thought and examination, with rapture and happiness born of
seclusion. This, brahmin, is called a footprint of the Tathāgata, something
scraped by the Tathāgata, something marked by the Tathāgata, but a noble
disciple does not yet come to the conclusion: ‘The Blessed One is perfectly
enlightened,theDhammaiswellexpoundedbytheBlessedOne,theSaṅghais
practicingthegoodway.’
13
20. “Again, with the subsiding of thought and examination, he enters and
dwells in the second jhāna, which has internal confidence and unification of
mind,iswithoutthoughtandexamination,andhasraptureandhappinessbornof
concentration.Thistoo,brahmin,iscalledafootprintoftheTathāgata…buta
noble disciple does not yet come to the conclusion: ‘The Blessed One is
perfectlyenlightened.…’
21.“Again, with the fadingaway as well of rapture, he dwells equanimous
and, mindful and clearly comprehending, he experiences happiness with the
body;heentersanddwellsin the thirdjhānaofwhichthenobleonesdeclare:
‘He is equanimous, mindful, one who dwells happily.’ This too, brahmin, is
calledafootprintoftheTathāgata…butanoblediscipledoesnotyetcometo
theconclusion:‘TheBlessedOneisperfectlyenlightened.…’
22.“Again,withtheabandoningofpleasureandpain,andwiththeprevious
passing away of joy and dejection, he enters and dwells in the fourth jhāna,
whichisneitherpainfulnorpleasantandincludesthepurificationofmindfulness
byequanimity.Thistoo,brahmin,iscalledafootprintoftheTathāgata…buta
noble disciple does not yet come to the conclusion: ‘The Blessed One is
perfectlyenlightened.…’
23.“Whenhismindisthusconcentrated,purified,bright,unblemished,ridof
defilement,malleable,wieldy,steady,andattainedtoimperturbability,hedirects
ittoknowledgeoftherecollectionofpastlives.Herecollectshismanifoldpast
lives,thatis,onebirth,twobirths,threebirths,fourbirths,fivebirths,tenbirths,
twentybirths,thirtybirths,fortybirths,fiftybirths,ahundredbirths,athousand
births,ahundredthousandbirths,manyeonsofworld-contraction,manyeonsof
world-expansion,manyeonsofworld-contractionandexpansion:‘ThereIwas
sonamed,ofsuchaclan,withsuchanappearance,suchwasmynutriment,such
myexperienceofpleasureandpain,suchmylife-term;andpassingawayfrom
there,Iwasrebornelsewhere;andtheretooIwassonamed,ofsuchaclan,with
suchanappearance,suchwasmynutriment,suchmyexperienceofpleasureand
pain,suchmylife-term;andpassingawayfromthere,Iwasrebornhere.’Thus
withtheiraspectsandparticularsherecollectshismanifoldpastlives.Thistoo,
brahmin,iscalledafootprintoftheTathāgata…butanoblediscipledoesnot
yetcometotheconclusion:‘TheBlessedOneisperfectlyenlightened.…’
24.“Whenhismindisthusconcentrated,purified,bright,unblemished,ridof
defilement,malleable,wieldy,steady,andattainedtoimperturbability,hedirects
ittoknowledgeofthepassingawayandrebirthofbeings.Withthedivineeye,
which is purified and surpasses the human, he sees beings passing away and
beingreborn,inferiorandsuperior,fairandugly,fortunateandunfortunate.He
understandshowbeingspassonaccordingtotheiractionsthus:‘Thesebeings
whobehavedwronglybybody,speech,andmind,whoreviledthenobleones,
heldwrongview,andundertookactionsbasedonwrongview,withthebreakup
of the body, after death, have been reborn in a state of misery, in a bad
destination,inthelowerworld,inhell;butthesebeingswhobehavedwellby
body,speech,andmind,whodidnotrevilethenobleones,whoheldrightview,
andundertook actionbased on rightview,with the breakupof the body, after
death,havebeenreborninagooddestination,inaheavenlyworld.’Thuswith
the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the human, he sees beings
passingawayandbeingreborn,inferiorandsuperior,fairandugly,fortunateand
unfortunate,andheunderstandshowbeingspassonaccordingtotheiractions.
Thistoo,brahmin,iscalledafootprintoftheTathāgata…butanobledisciple
doesnotyetcometotheconclusion:‘TheBlessedOneisperfectlyenlightened.
…’
25.“Whenhismindisthusconcentrated,purified,bright,unblemished,ridof
defilement,malleable,wieldy,steady,andattainedtoimperturbability,hedirects
ittoknowledge of thedestructionof thetaints.He understands asitreally is:
‘This is suffering. This is the origin of suffering. This is the cessation of
suffering.Thisisthewayleadingtothecessationofsuffering.’Heunderstands
asitreallyis:‘Thesearethetaints.Thisistheoriginofthetaints.Thisisthe
cessation of the taints. This is the way leading to the cessation of the taints.’
“Thistoo,brahmin,iscalledafootprintoftheTathāgata,somethingscrapedby
theTathāgata,somethingmarkedbytheTathāgata,butanobledisciplestillhas
notyetcometotheconclusion:‘TheBlessedOneisperfectlyenlightened,the
Dhamma is well expounded by the Blessed One, the Saṅgha is practicing the
goodway.’Rather,heisintheprocessofcomingtothisconclusion.
14
26. “When he knows and sees thus, his mind is liberated from the taint of
sensualdesire,fromthetaintofexistence,andfromthetaintofignorance.When
it is liberated there comes the knowledge: ‘It is liberated. He understands:
‘Birth is destroyed, the spiritual life has been lived, what had to be done has
been done, there is no more coming back to any state of being.’ “This too,
brahmin, is called a footprint of the Tathāgata, something scraped by the
Tathāgata, something marked by the Tathāgata. It is at this point that a noble
disciplehascometotheconclusion:‘TheBlessedOneisperfectlyenlightened,
theDhammaiswellexpoundedbythe
BlessedOne,theSaṅghaispracticingthegoodway.’
15
Anditisatthispoint,
brahmin,thatthesimileoftheelephant’sfootprinthasbeencompletedindetail.”
27. When this was said, the brahmin Jāṇussoṇi said to the Blessed One:
“Magnificent, Master Gotama! Magnificent, Master Gotama! Master Gotama
hasmadetheDhammaclearinmanyways,asthoughhewereturningupright
whathadbeenoverthrown,revealingwhatwashidden,showingthewaytoone
whowaslost,orholdingupalampinthedarksothosewithgoodeyesightcan
seeforms.InowgoforrefugetoMasterGotama,totheDhamma,andtothe
Saṅghaofmonks.LetMasterGotamaacceptmeasalayfollowerwhohasgone
forrefugefromtodayuntillife’send.”
(MN27:CūḷahatthipadopamaSutta;I175–84)
5.THEHIGHERSTAGESOFTRAININGWITHSIMILES
12.“Here,monks,amonkresortstoasecludedrestingplace:theforest,theroot
ofatree,amountain,aravine,ahillsidecave,acharnelground,ajunglethicket,
anopenspace,aheapofstraw.
13.“Onreturningfromhisalmsround,afterhismealhesitsdown,foldinghis
legscrosswise,settinghisbodyerectandestablishingmindfulnessbeforehim.
Abandoninglongingfortheworld…[asinprecedingtext,§18]…hepurifies
hismindfromdoubt.
14.“Monks,supposeamanweretotakealoanandundertakebusiness,and
hisbusinessweretosucceedsothathecouldrepayallthemoneyoftheoldloan,
andtherewouldremainenoughextratomaintainawife;onconsideringthis,he
wouldbegladandfullofjoy.Orsupposeaman were afflicted,sufferingand
gravelyill,andhisfoodwouldnotagreewithhimandhisbodyhadnostrength,
butlaterhewouldrecoverfromtheafflictionandhisfoodwouldagreewithhim
andhisbodywouldregainstrength;onconsideringthis,hewouldbegladand
fullofjoy.Orsupposeamanwereimprisoned,butlaterhewouldbereleased,
safeandsecure,withnolosstohisproperty;onconsideringthis,hewouldbe
glad and full of joy. Or suppose a man were a slave, not self-dependent but
dependent on others, unable to go where he wants, but later on he would be
releasedfromslavery,self-dependent,independentofothers,afreemanableto
go where he wants; on considering this, he wouldbe gladand full ofjoy. Or
supposeamanwithwealthandpropertyweretoenteraroadacrossadesert,but
later on he would cross over the desert, safe and secure, with no loss to his
property;onconsideringthis,hewouldbegladandfullofjoy.Sotoo,monks,
whilethesefivehindranceshavenotyetbeenabandonedinhimself,amonksees
themrespectivelyasadebt,illness,aprison,slavery,andaroadacrossadesert.
Butwhenthesefivehindranceshavebeenabandonedinhimself,heseesthatas
freedom from debt, recovery from illness, release from prison, freedom from
slavery,andalandofsafety.
15. “Having abandoned these five hindrances, defilements of the mind that
weakenwisdom,secludedfromsensualpleasures,secludedfromunwholesome
states,heentersanddwellsinthefirstjhāna,whichisaccompaniedbythought
and examination, with rapture and happiness born of seclusion. He makes the
rapture and happiness born of seclusion drench, steep, fill, and pervade this
body, so that there is no part of his whole body that is not pervaded by the
rapture and happiness born of seclusion. Just as a skilled bath man or a bath
man’sapprenticeheapsbathpowderinametalbasinand,sprinklingitgradually
withwater,kneadsituntilthemoisturewetshisballofbathpowder,soaksit,
andpervadesitinsideandout,yettheballitselfdoesnotooze;sotoo,amonk
makes the rapture and happiness born of seclusion drench, steep, fill, and
pervadethisbody,sothatthereisnopartofhiswholebodythatisnotpervaded
bytheraptureandhappinessbornofseclusion.
16.“Again,monks,withthesubsidingofthoughtandexamination,heenters
anddwellsinthesecondjhāna,whichhasinternalconfidenceandunificationof
mind,iswithoutthoughtandexamination,andhasraptureandhappinessbornof
concentration.Hemakestheraptureandhappinessbornofconcentrationdrench,
steep,fill,andpervadethisbody,sothatthereisnopartofhiswholebodythatis
notpervadedbytheraptureandhappinessbornofconcentration.Justasthough
therewerealakewhosewaterswelledupfrombelowandithadnoinflowfrom
east,west,north,orsouth,andwouldnotbereplenishedfromtimetotimeby
showersofrain,thenthecoolfountofwaterwellingupinthelakewouldmake
thecoolwaterdrench,steep,fill,andpervadethelake,sothattherewouldbeno
partofthewholelakethatisnotpervadedbycoolwater;sotoo,amonkmakes
theraptureandhappinessbornofconcentrationdrench,steep,fill,andpervade
thisbody,sothatthereisnopartofhiswholebodythatisnotpervadedbythe
raptureandhappinessbornofconcentration.
17. “Again, monks, with the fading away as well of rapture, he dwells
equanimousand,mindfulandclearlycomprehending,heexperienceshappiness
withthebody;heentersanddwellsinthethirdjhānaofwhichthenobleones
declare: ‘He is equanimous, mindful, one who dwells happily.’ He makes the
happinessdivestedofrapturedrench,steep,fill,andpervadethisbody,sothat
thereisnopartofhiswholebodythatisnotpervadedbythehappinessdivested
ofrapture.Justas,inapondofblueorredorwhitelotuses,somelotusesthatare
bornandgrowinthewaterthriveimmersedinthewaterwithoutrisingoutofit,
andcoolwaterdrenches,steeps,fills,andpervadesthemtotheirtipsandtheir
roots,so that thereis no part of all those lotuses thatis not pervadedby cool
water;sotoo,amonkmakesthehappinessdivestedofrapturedrench,steep,fill,
and pervade this body, so that there is no part of his whole body that is not
pervadedbythehappinessdivestedofrapture.
18.“Again,monks, withtheabandoningof pleasureandpain, andwiththe
previousdisappearanceofjoyanddejection,amonkentersuponanddwellsin
thefourthjhāna,whichhasneither-pain-nor-pleasureandpurityofmindfulness
duetoequanimity.Hesitspervadingthisbodywithapurebrightmind,sothat
thereisnopartofhiswholebodythatisnotpervadedbythepurebrightmind.
Just as though a man were sitting covered from the head down with a white
cloth,sothattherewouldbenopartofhiswholebodythatisnotpervadedby
thewhitecloth;sotoo,amonksitspervadingthisbodywithapurebrightmind,
sothatthereisnopartofhiswholebodythatisnotpervadedbythepurebright
mind.
19.“Whenhismindisthusconcentrated,purified,bright,unblemished,ridof
defilements, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to imperturbability, he
directs it to knowledge of the recollection of past lives. He recollects his
manifoldpastlives,thatis,onebirth,twobirths…[asinprecedingtext,§23]…
Thuswiththeiraspectsandparticularsherecollectshismanifoldpastlives.Just
asamanmightgofromhisownvillagetoanothervillageandthenbackagainto
hisownvillage,hemightthink:‘Iwentfrommyownvillagetothatvillage,and
thereIstoodinsuchaway,satinsuchaway,spokeinsuchaway,keptsilentin
suchaway;andfromthatvillageIwenttothatothervillage,andthereIstoodin
suchaway,satinsuchaway,spokeinsuchaway,keptsilentinsuchaway;and
from that village I came back again to my own village.’ So too, a monk
recollectshismanifoldpastlives.…Thuswiththeiraspectsandparticularshe
recollectshismanifoldpastlives.
20.“Whenhismindisthusconcentrated,purified,bright,unblemished,ridof
defilements, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to imperturbability, he
directs it to knowledge of the passing away and rebirth of beings ... [as in
precedingtext,§24]...Thuswiththedivineeye,whichispurifiedandsurpasses
thehuman,heseesbeingspassingawayandbeingreborn,inferiorandsuperior,
fairandugly,fortunateandunfortunate,andheunderstandshowbeingspasson
accordingtotheiractions.Justasthoughthereweretwohouseswithdoorsanda
man with good sight standing there between them saw people entering the
housesandcomingoutandpassingtoandfro,sotoo,withthedivineeye,which
ispurifiedandsurpassesthehuman,amonkseesbeingspassingawayandbeing
reborn...andheunderstandshowbeingspassonaccordingtotheiractions.
21.“Whenhismindisthusconcentrated,purified,bright,unblemished,ridof
defilements, malleable, wieldy, steady, and attained to imperturbability, he
directs it to knowledge of the destruction of the taints. He understands as it
actually is: ‘This is suffering’ ... [as in preceding text, §§25–26] … He
understands:‘Birthisdestroyed,thespirituallifehasbeenlived,whathadtobe
donehasbeendone,thereisnomorecomingbacktoanystateofbeing.’
“Just as if there were a lake in a mountain recess, clear, limpid, and
undisturbed,sothatamanwithgoodsightstandingonthebankcouldseeshells,
gravel, and pebbles, and also shoals of fish swimming about and resting, he
might think: ‘There is this lake, clear, limpid, and undisturbed, and there are
theseshells,gravel,andpebbles,andalsotheseshoalsoffishswimmingabout
andresting.’Sotoo,amonkunderstandsasitactuallyis:‘Thisissuffering.’…
Heunderstands:‘Birthisdestroyed,theholylifehasbeenlived,whathadtobe
donehasbeendone,thereisnomorecomingbacktoanystateofbeing.’”
(fromMN39:MahāAssapuraSutta;I274–80)
VIII.MasteringtheMind
INTRODUCTION
Having presented a broad overview of the world-transcending path in the
previouschapter,inthischapterandthenextIintendtofocusmorespecifically
ontwoaspectsofthispathasdescribedintheNikāyas,meditationandwisdom.
Aswehaveseen,thegradualtrainingisdividedintothethreesectionsofmoral
discipline,concentration,andwisdom(seepp.225–26).Moraldisciplinebegins
with the observance of precepts, which anchor one’s actions in principles of
conscientiousbehaviorandmoralrestraint.Theundertakingofprecepts—forthe
Nikāyas,particularlythefullcodeofmonasticprecepts—iscalledthetrainingin
the higher moral discipline (adhisīlasikkhā). Moral discipline, consistently
observed,infusesthemindwiththepurifyingforceofmoralvirtue,generating
joyanddeeperconfidenceintheDhamma.
Established upon moral discipline, the disciple takes up the practice of
meditation, intended to stabilize the mind and clear away the obstacles to the
unfoldingofwisdom.Becausemeditationelevatesthemindbeyonditsnormal
level, this phase of practice is called the training in the higher mind
(adhicittasikkhā).Becauseitbringsinnerstillnessandquietude,itisalsocalled
thedevelopmentofserenity(samathabh̄van̄).Successfulpracticeresultsindeep
concentrationormentalunification(samādhi),alsoknownasinternalserenityof
mind (ajjhattạ cetosamatha ). The most eminent types of concentration
recognized in the Nikāyas are the fourjhānas, which constitute right
concentration(samm̄sam̄dhi)oftheNobleEightfoldPath.Beyondthejhānaslie
thefourformlessattainments(ar̄pasam̄patti),whichcarrytheprocessofmental
unificationtostillsubtlerlevels.
The third stage of practice is the training in the higher wisdom
(adhipaññāsikkhā), designed to awaken direct insight into the true nature of
thingsasdisclosedbytheBuddha’steaching.Thiswillbedealtwithindetailin
thefollowingchapter.
Thefirstselectionbelow,TextVIII,1,isamiscellanyofshortepigramsthat
stresstheneedformentalcultivation.Thesayingsoccurinpairs.Ineachpair,
thefirstmembersignalsthedangersoftheuncultivatedmind,thesecondextols
thebenefits of the cultivated mind.The uncultivated mind is easyprey to the
defilements—greed, hatred, and delusion and their offshoots. The defilements
generateunwholesomekamma,whichbringspainfulresultsbothinthislifeand
infuturelives.Sincethedefilementsarethecauseofoursufferingandbondage,
the path to liberation necessarily involves a meticulous process of mental
trainingintendedtosubduethemandultimatelyuprootthemfromtheirnesting
place in the deep recesses of the mind. From development of the mind arise
happiness,freedom,andpeace.
Developmentofthemind,fortheNikāyas,meansthedevelopmentofserenity
(samatha) and insight (vipassanā). Text VIII,2(1) says that when serenity is
developed, it leads to concentration and the liberation of the mind from such
emotionaldefilementsaslustandillwill.Wheninsightisdeveloped,itleadsto
thehigherwisdomofinsightintothetruenatureofphenomenaandpermanently
liberatesthemindfromignorance.Thusthetwothingsmostneededtomaster
themindareserenityandinsight.
Since concentration is the basis for wisdom, the Nikāyas usually treat the
development of serenity as the precursor to the development of insight.
However, because the aptitudes of meditators differ, several suttas allow for
alternative approaches to this sequence. Text VIII,2(2) speaks of four
approachestomentalcultivation:
1. The first approach, the classical one, is to develop serenity first and
insightafterward.By“serenity”ismeantthejhānasor(accordingtothe
Pāli commentaries) a state bordering on the jhānas called “access” or
“threshold”concentration(upacārasamādhi).
2. A second approach is to develop insight first and serenity afterward.
Sincetherecanbenorealinsightwithoutconcentration,suchmeditators
—presumablypeoplewithsharpintellectualfaculties—mustinitiallyuse
concentration as the basis for acquiring insight into the true
characteristicsofphenomena.However,itseemsthatsuchconcentration,
though sufficient for insight, is not strong enough to allow for a
breakthroughtothesupramundanepath.Thesemeditatorsmusttherefore
return to the task of unifying the mind before resuming the work of
insight. Such insight, based on concentration, culminates in the
supramundanepath.
3.Athirdapproachistodevelopserenityandinsightintandem.Meditators
who take this approach first attain a particular level of concentration,
suchasajh̄naorformlessattainment,andthenemployitasabasisfor
insight. Having developed insight, they then return to concentration,
attainadifferentjhānaorformlessattainment,andusethatasabasisfor
insight.Thustheyproceeduntiltheyreachthesupramundanepath.
4.Thedescriptionofthefourthapproachissomewhatobscure.Thesutta
saysthat“amonk’smindisseizedbyagitationabouttheteachings,”and
then, some time later, he gains concentration and attains the
supramundanepath.Thisstatementsuggestsapersoninitiallydrivenby
such intense desire to understand the Dhamma that he or she cannot
focusclearlyuponanymeditationobject. Later,with theaidofcertain
supporting conditions, this person manages to subdue the mind, gain
concentration,andattainthesupramundanepath.
TextVIII,2(3)againconfirmsthatbothserenityandinsightarenecessary,and
alsoindicatestheskillsneededfortheirrespectivepractice.Thecultivationof
serenityrequiresskillinsteadying,composing,unifying,andconcentratingthe
mind. The cultivation of insight requires skill in observing, investigating, and
discerning conditioned phenomena, spoken of as “formations” (saṅkhārā). In
linewiththeprecedingtext,thissuttaconfirmsthatsomemeditatorsbeginby
developinginternalserenityofmind,othersbydevelopingthehigherwisdomof
insight into phenomena, others by developing both in tandem. But while
meditators may start off differently, eventually they must all strike a healthy
balance between serenity and insight. The exact point of balance between the
twowilldiffer from one person to another,butwhenameditatorachievesthe
appropriatebalance,serenity andinsight join forcesto issuein theknowledge
and vision of the Four Noble Truths. This knowledge and vision—the world-
transcendingwisdom—occursinfourdistinct“installments,”thefourstagesof
realization which, in sequence, permanently destroy ignorance along with the
affiliated defilements.
1
Text VIII,2(2) subsumes these defilements under the
expression“thefettersandunderlyingtendencies.”
The main impediments to the development of serenity and insight are
collectivelycalledthe“fivehindrances,”whichwealreadymetintheextended
accountofthegradualtraining(seeTextVII,4§18).TextVIII,3statesthatjust
asdifferentimpuritiesofwaterpreventusfromclearlyseeingthereflectionof
our face in a bowl of water, so the five hindrances prevent us from properly
understandingourowngoodandthegoodofothers.Ameditatorsinitialefforts
therefore have to be devoted to the task of overcoming the hindrances. Once
theseareovercome,successisassuredinthepracticeofserenityandinsight.
TextVIII,4comparesthesuccessivestagesinthepurificationofthemindto
the refinement of gold. The meditating monk begins by removing the gross
impurities of bodily, verbal, and mental conduct; this is achieved by moral
discipline and vigilant introspection. Then he eliminates the middle-level
impurities of unwholesome thoughts: thoughts of sensuality, ill will, and
harmfulness.Nextcomethesubtleimpuritiesofmeanderingthoughts.Finally,
hemusteliminatethoughtsabouttheDhamma,thesubtlestobstacle.Whenall
such distracting thoughts are removed, the monk attains “mental unification”
(ekodibhāva),thebasisforthesix“directknowledges”(abhiññā)culminatingin
arahantship,theknowledgeofthedestructionofthetaints.
The Nikāyas sometimes compare the process of training the mind to the
tamingofawildanimal.Justasananimaltrainerhastousevarioustechniques
to bring the animal under control, the meditator has to draw upon various
methods to subdue the mind. It is not enough to be acquainted with one
meditationtechnique;onemustbeskilledinanumberofmethodsintendedas
antidotes to specific mental obstructions. In Text VIII,5 the Buddha explains
five ancillary techniques—here called “signs” (nimitta)—that a monk might
deploy to eliminate unwholesome thoughts connected with lust, hatred, and
delusion. One who succeeds in overcoming distractingthoughts by the use of
thesetechniquesiscalled“amasterofthecoursesofthought.”
The suttas teach various techniques of meditation aimed at inducing
concentration.Onepopularformulapitsspecificmeditationsubjectsagainstthe
unwholesomementalstatestheyareintendedtorectify.Thusthemeditationon
the unattractive nature of the body (see Text VIII,8 §10) is the remedy for
sensuallust;loving-kindnessistheremedyforillwill;mindfulnessofbreathing
istheremedyforrestlessness;andtheperceptionofimpermanenceistheremedy
fortheconceit“Iam.”
2
Theperceptionofimpermanenceisasubjectofinsight
meditation, the other three subjects of serenity meditation.Loving-kindness is
the first of the four divine abodes (brahmavihāra) or immeasurable states
(appamaññā) briefly discussed in chapter V: boundless loving-kindness,
compassion,altruisticjoy,andequanimity.Thesearerespectivelytheantidotes
toillwill,harmfulness,discontent,andpartiality.Sincewe already introduced
the standard canonical passage on the divine abodes in connection with
meditationasabasisformerit—seeTextV,5(2)—toshedadifferentspotlighton
thispracticeIhaveincludedhere,asTextVIII,6,thefamousSimileoftheSaw,
apassagethatshowsloving-kindnessinaction.
Through the centuries the most popular meditation subjects among lay
Buddhistshaveprobablybeenthesixrecollections(anussati):oftheBuddha,the
Dhamma, the Saṅgha, morality, generosity, and the devas.Text VIII,7 is an
important canonical source for these meditations. Their themes are especially
closetotheheartsandeverydayexperiencesofpeoplelivinghouseholdlivesin
acultureimbuedwithBuddhistvalues.Thesemeditationpracticesinturnenrich
anduplifttheirlives,bringingthemintocloserspiritualcontactwiththeidealsof
religious faith. The first three are primarily devotional recollections that build
upon confidence in the Three Jewels; but while they begin with faith, they
temporarily cleanse the mind of defilements and conduce to sustained
concentration. The meditation on moral discipline develops from one’s
observanceoftheprecepts,apracticeaimedatself-benefit;therecollectionof
generosity builds upon one’s practice of giving, an altruistic practice; the
recollectionofthedevasisacontemplationofthefruitsofone’sfaith,morality,
generosity,andwisdomastheymatureinfuturelives.
The discourse generally considered to offer the most comprehensive
instructions on meditation practice is the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta.
3
Two versions of
thissuttaexist,alongerversionintheDīghaNikāya,amiddle-lengthversionin
the Majjhima Nikāya. The former differs from the latter only by its extended
analysis of the Four Noble Truths, which may have originally been an early
commentary incorporated into the discourse. The middle-length version is
included here as Text VIII,8.An entire chapter in the Saṃyutta Nikāya, the
Satipaṭṭhānasaṃyutta,isalsodevotedtothissystemofmeditation.
TheSatipaṭṭhāna Sutta does not recommenda single meditation subject nor
even a single method of meditation. Its purpose, rather, is to explain how to
establishthemodeofcontemplationneededtoarriveatrealizationofNibbāna.
Theappropriateframeofmindtobeestablished,asimpliedbythetitleofthe
sutta,iscalledan“establishmentofmindfulness.”Thewordsatipaṭṭhānashould
probably be understood as a compound of sati, mindfulness, and upaṭṭhāna,
establishment;hence“establishmentofmindfulness”wouldbetherenderingthat
best captures the original meaning. According to the standard formula that
accompanieseachexercise,asatipaṭṭhānaisamodeofdwelling(viharati).This
modeofdwellinginvolvesobservationofobjectsintheproperframeofmind.
Theframeofmindconsistsofthreepositivequalities:energy(ātāpa,“ardor”),
mindfulness (sati), and clear comprehension (sampajañña). The word sati
originallymeantmemory,butinthepresentcontextitsignifiesrecollectionof
thepresent,asustainedawarenessofwhatishappeningtousandwithinuson
eachoccasionofexperience.Mindfulness,initsinitialstages,isconcernedwith
keepingthecontemplativemindcontinuallyonitsobject,whichmeanskeeping
theobjectcontinuallypresenttothemind.Mindfulnesspreventsthemindfrom
slippingaway,fromdriftingoffundertheswayofrandomthoughtsintomental
proliferation and forgetfulness. Mindfulness is often said to occur in close
conjunctionwith“clearcomprehension,”aclearknowledgeandunderstanding
ofwhatoneisexperiencing.
Theopeningformulaofthesuttasaysthatoneengagesinthispracticeafter
“having subdued longing and dejection in regard to the world” (vineyya loke
abhijjhā-domanassaṃ).Theexpression“havingsubdued”neednotbetakento
implythatonemustfirstovercomelonginganddejection—which,accordingto
the commentary, signify greed and aversion and thus represent the five
hindrances—beforeonecanstarttopracticesatipaṭṭhāna.Theexpressionmight
be understood to mean that the practice is itself the means of overcoming
longinganddejection.Thus,whilesubduingtheobstructiveinfluencesofgreed
andaversion,themeditatorarousesthepositivequalitiesofenergy,mindfulness,
and clear comprehension, and contemplates four objective domains: the body,
feelings,statesofmind,andphenomena.Itisthesefourobjectivedomainsthat
differentiatemindfulobservationintofourestablishmentsofmindfulness.
ThefourobjectivedomainsdividetheexpositoryportionoftheSatipaṭṭhāna
Sutta into four major sections. Two of these sections, the first and the fourth,
haveseveralsubdivisions.Whenthedivisionsareaddedup,weobtainaltogether
twenty-one meditation subjects. Several of these can be used as means to
develop serenity (samatha), but the satipaṭṭhāna system as a whole seems
especiallydesignedforthedevelopmentofinsight.Themainsectionswiththeir
divisionsareasfollows:
1. Contemplation of the body (kāyānupassanā). This comprises fourteen
subjects of meditation: mindfulness of breathing; contemplation of the
four postures; clear comprehension of activities; attention to the
unattractivenatureofthebody(viewedbywayofitsorgansandtissues);
attention to the elements; and nine charnel ground contemplations,
contemplationsbasedoncorpsesindifferentstagesofdecomposition.
2. Contemplation of feeling (vedanānupassanā). Feeling is differentiated
into three primary types—pleasant, painful, and neither-painful-nor-
pleasant—whichareeachfurtherdistinguishedintocarnalandspiritual
feelings.However,becausetheseareallmerelydifferenttypesoffeeling,
thecontemplationoffeelingisconsideredonesubject.
3. Contemplation of mind (cittānupassanā). This is one subject of
contemplation—the mind—differentiated into eight pairs of contrasting
statesofmind.
4.Contemplation ofphenomena (dhammānupassanā). The word dhammā
here probably signifies phenomena, which are classified into five
categories governed by the Buddha’s teaching, the Dhamma. Thus
dhammānupassanā has a dual meaning, “dhammas (phenomena)
contemplatedbywayoftheDhamma(theteaching).”Thefivecategories
are:thefivehindrances,thefiveaggregates,thesixinternalandexternal
sense bases, the seven factors of enlightenment, and the Four Noble
Truths.
Although not specified in the sutta, a progressive sequence seems to be
impliedbythetermsdescribingeachcontemplation.Inmindfulnessofbreathing
one moves to subtler levels of quiescence; in contemplation of feeling, one
moves toward noncarnal feelings that are neither painful nor pleasant; in
contemplationofmind,onemovestowardstatesofmindthatareconcentrated
andliberated.Theseallsuggestthatprogressivecontemplationbringsenhanced
concentration.In the contemplationof phenomena, the emphasisshifts toward
insight. One begins by observing and overcoming the five hindrances. The
overcoming of the hindrances marks success in concentration. With the
concentratedmind,onecontemplatesthefiveaggregatesandthesixsensebases.
Ascontemplationgainsmomentum,thesevenfactorsofenlightenmentbecome
manifest,andthedevelopmentofthesevenenlightenmentfactorsculminatesin
knowledge of the Four Noble Truths. Knowledge of the Four Noble Truths
liberates the mind from the defilements and thus leads to the attainment of
Nibbāna.Thusthissystemofmeditationfulfillsthepotentialascribedtoitbythe
BuddhaofleadingdirectlytotherealizationofNibbāna.
Eachmajorcontemplativeexerciseissupplementedbyanauxiliarysection,a
“refrain”withfoursubdivisions.Thefirststatesthatthemeditatorcontemplates
theobjectinternally(withinhisorherownexperience),externally(reflectively
considering it as occurring within the experience of others), and both; this
ensuresthatoneobtainsacomprehensiveandbalancedviewoftheobject.The
second portion states that the meditator contemplates the object as subject to
origination, as subject to vanishing, and as subject to both origination and
vanishing;thisbringstolightthecharacteristicofimpermanenceandthusleads
to insight into the three characteristics: impermanence, suffering, and nonself
(anicca,dukkha,anattā).Thethirdstatesthatthemeditatorissimplyawareof
thebareobjecttotheextentnecessaryforconstantmindfulnessandknowledge.
And the fourth describes the meditator as dwelling in a state of complete
detachment,notclingingtoanythingintheworld.
IntheSatipaṭṭhānaSutta,mindfulnessofbreathing(ānāpānasati)isincluded
as merely one meditation subject among others, but the Nikāyas assign it a
positionoffundamentalimportance.TheBuddhasaidthatheusedmindfulness
ofbreathingashismainmeditationsubjectfortheattainmentofenlightenment
(see SN 54:8; V 317). During his teaching career he occasionally went into
seclusiontodevotehimselfto“theconcentrationgainedthroughmindfulnessof
breathing” and he confers on it a unique honor by calling it “the Tathāgata’s
dwelling”(SN54:11;V326).
MindfulnessofbreathingisthesubjectofanentirechapterintheSaṃyutta
Nikāya (SN 54, Ānāpānasaṃyutta). Whereas the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta explains
mindfulness of breathing by a four-step formula, the suttas in this collection
expand its practice to sixteen steps. Text VIII,9, from the Ānāpānasaṃyutta,
describesthesixteensteps.Sincethesestepsarenotnecessarilysequentialbut
partlyoverlap,theymightbethoughtofasfacetsratherthanactualsteps.The
sixteenfacetsaregroupedintofourtetradseachofwhichcorrespondstooneof
thefourestablishmentsofmindfulness.Thefirsttetradcontainsthefourfacets
mentionedintheSatipaṭṭhānaSuttainitssectiononcontemplationofthebody,
buttheothertetradsextendthepracticetothecontemplationsoffeelings,mind,
andphenomena. Thusthe developmentof mindfulness of breathing canfulfill
notjustonebutallfourestablishmentsofmindfulness.Thefourestablishments
of mindfulness, based on mindfulness of breathing, in turn fulfill the seven
factorsofenlightenment;andtheseinturnfulfilltrueknowledgeandliberation.
Thisexpositionthusshowsmindfulnessofbreathingtobeacompletesubjectof
meditationthatbeginswithsimpleattentiontothebreathandculminatesinthe
permanentliberationofthemind.
Finally,inTextVIII,10,theBuddha’schiefdisciple,theVenerableSāriputta,
testifiestohisownachievementofmasteryoverthemind.Inreplytoquestions
fromtheVenerableĀnanda,heexplainshowheisabletodwellforawholeday
in each of the jhānas and formless attainments, as well as in the special
attainment called the cessation of perception and feeling
(saññāvedayitanirodha). In each case, because he is an arahant, he can do so
withoutgraspingtheseattainmentswiththoughtsof“I”and“mine.”
VIII.MASTERINGTHEMIND
1.THEMINDISTHEKEY
1.“Idonotperceiveevenoneotherthing,Omonks,thatissounwieldyasan
undevelopedmind.Anundevelopedmindistrulyunwieldy.
2.“Idonotperceiveevenoneotherthing,Omonks,thatissowieldyasa
developedmind.Adevelopedmindistrulywieldy.
3.“Idonotperceiveevenoneotherthing,Omonks,thatleadstosuchgreat
harmasanundevelopedmind.Anundevelopedmindleadstogreatharm.
4.“Idonotperceiveevenoneotherthing,Omonks,thatleadstosuchgreat
benefitasadevelopedmind.Adevelopedmindleadstogreatbenefit.
9.“Idonotperceiveevenoneotherthing,Omonks,thatwhenundeveloped
and uncultivated entails such great suffering as the mind. The mind when
undevelopedanduncultivatedentailsgreatsuffering.
10.“Idonotperceiveevenoneotherthing,Omonks,thatwhendeveloped
and cultivated entails such great happiness as the mind. The mind when
developedandcultivatedentailsgreathappiness.”
123
(AN1:iii,1,2,3,4,9,10;I5–6)
2.DEVELOPINGAPAIROFSKILLS
(1)SerenityandInsight
“Two things, O monks, partake of true knowledge. What two? Serenity and
insight.
“Whenserenityisdeveloped,whatbenefitdoesoneexperience?Themindis
developed.Whenthemindisdeveloped,whatbenefitdoesoneexperience?All
lustisabandoned.
4
“When insight is developed, what benefit does one experience? Wisdom is
developed.Whenwisdomisdeveloped,whatbenefitdoesoneexperience?All
ignoranceisabandoned.
5
“Aminddefiledbylustisnotliberated;andwisdomdefiledbyignoranceis
notdeveloped.Thus,monks,throughthefadingawayoflustthereisliberation
of mind; and through the fading away of ignorance there is liberation by
wisdom.”
6
(AN2:iii,10;I61)
(2)FourWaystoArahantship
Thushave Iheard. Onone occasiontheVenerableĀnanda wasdwelling at
Kosambī in Ghosita’s monastery. There the Venerable Ānanda addressed the
monksthus:
“Friends!”
“Yes,friend,”themonksreplied.ThereupontheVenerableĀnandasaid:
“Friends,whatevermonksornunsdeclarebeforemethattheyhaveattained
thefinalknowledgeofarahantship,allthesedoso in oneoffourways.What
four?
“Here,friends,amonkdevelopsinsightprecededbyserenity.
7
Whilehethus
developsinsightprecededbyserenity,thepatharisesinhim.Henowpursues,
develops, and cultivates that path, and while he is doing so the fetters are
abandonedandtheunderlyingtendencieseliminated.
8
“Oragain,friends,amonkdevelopsserenityprecededbyinsight.
9
Whilehe
thus develops serenity preceded by insight, the path arises in him. He now
pursues,develops,andcultivatesthatpath,andwhileheisdoingsothefetters
areabandonedandtheunderlyingtendencieseliminated.
“Or again, friends, a monk develops serenity and insight joined in pairs.
10
While he thus develops serenityand insight joined in pairs, the path arises in
him.Henowpursues,develops,andcultivatesthatpath,andwhileheisdoingso
thefettersareabandonedandtheunderlyingtendencieseliminated.
“Oragain,friends,amonk’smindisseizedbyagitationabouttheteaching.
11
Buttherecomesatimewhenhismindbecomesinternallysteadied,composed,
unified,andconcentrated;thenthepatharisesinhim.Henowpursues,develops,
andcultivatesthatpath,andwhileheisdoingsothefettersareabandonedand
theunderlyingtendencieseliminated.
“Friends,whatevermonksornunsdeclarebeforemethattheyhaveattained
thefinalknowledgeofarahantship,allthesedosoinoneofthesefourways.”
(AN4:170;II156–57)
(3)FourKindsofPersons
“Thesefourkindsofpersons,Omonks,arefoundexistingintheworld.What
four?
“Here,monks,a certainpersongainsinternal serenityofmind but doesnot
gainthehigherwisdomofinsightintophenomena.
12
Anotherpersongainsthe
higherwisdomofinsightintophenomenabutdoesnotgaininternalserenityof
mind. Another person gains neither internal serenity of mind nor the higher
wisdom of insight into phenomena. And another person gains both internal
serenityofmindandthehigherwisdomofinsightintophenomena.
“Therein,monks,thepersonwhogainsinternalserenityofmindbutnotthe
higherwisdom of insightinto phenomena should approach one whogains the
higher wisdom and inquire of him: ‘How, friend, should formations be seen?
Howshouldformationsbeexplored?Howshouldformationsbediscernedwith
insight?’
13
Theotherthenanswershimashehasseenandunderstoodthematter
thus:‘Formationsshouldbeseeninsuchaway;theyshouldbeexploredinsuch
away;theyshouldbediscernedwithinsightinsuchaway.’Atalatertimethis
onegainsbothinternalserenityofmindandthehigherwisdomofinsightinto
phenomena.
“Therein, monks, the person who gains the higher wisdom of insight into
phenomena but not internal serenity of mind should approach one who gains
internalserenityandinquireofhim:‘How,friend,shouldthemindbesteadied?
How should the mind be composed? How should the mind be unified? How
shouldthemindbeconcentrated?Theotherthenanswershimashehasseen
and understood the matter thus: ‘The mind should be steadied in such a way,
composedinsuchaway,unifiedinsuchaway,concentratedinsuchaway.’Ata
latertimethisonegainsbothinternalserenityofmindandthehigherwisdomof
insightintophenomena.
“Therein,monks,thepersonwhogainsneitherinternalserenityofmindnor
thehigher wisdom of insight intophenomena should approachone who gains
both and inquire of him: ‘How, friend, should the mind be steadied?… How,
friend,shouldformationsbeseen?…’Theotherthenanswershimashehasseen
andunderstoodthematterthus:‘Themindshouldbesteadiedinsuchaway….
Formationsshouldbeseeninsuchaway.…’Atalatertimethisonegainsboth
internalserenityofmindandthehigherwisdomofinsightintophenomena.
“Therein,monks,thepersonwhogainsbothinternalserenityofmindandthe
higherwisdomofinsightintophenomenashouldestablishhimselfinjustthese
wholesomestatesandmakeafurthereffortforthedestructionofthetaints.”
(AN4:94;II93–95)
3.THEHINDRANCESTOMENTAL
DEVELOPMENT
Then the brahmin Saṅgārava approached the Blessed One, exchanged
greetingswithhim,satdowntooneside,andsaid:
“Master Gotama, why is it that sometimes even those texts that have been
recitedoveralongperioddonotrecurtothemind,letalonethosethathavenot
beenrecited?Andwhyisitthatsometimesthosetextsthathavenotbeenrecited
overalongperiodrecurtothemind,letalonethosethathavebeenrecited?”
“Brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by sensual lust,
overwhelmed by sensual lust, and one does not understand as it really is the
escapefromarisensensuallust,
14
onthatoccasiononeneitherknowsnorseesas
itreallyisone’sowngood,orthegoodofothers,orthegoodofboth.Theneven
thosetextsthathavebeenrecitedoveralongperioddonotrecurtothemind,let
alonethosethathavenotbeenrecited.
“Suppose,brahmin,thereisabowlofwatermixedwithred,yellow,blue,or
crimsondye.Ifamanwithgoodsightweretoexaminehisownfacialreflection
init,hewouldneitherknownorseeitasitreallyis.Sotoo,brahmin,whenone
dwellswithamindobsessedbysensuallust…eventhosetextsthathavebeen
recitedoveralongperioddonotrecurtothemind,letalonethosethathavenot
beenrecited.
“Again, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by ill will,
overwhelmedbyillwill,andonedoesnotunderstandasitreallyistheescape
fromarisenillwill,onthatoccasiononeneitherknowsnorseesasitreallyis
one’s own good, or the good ofothers, or thegood ofboth. Theneven those
textsthathavebeenrecitedoveralongperioddonotrecurtothemind,letalone
thosethathavenotbeenrecited.
“Suppose,brahmin,thereisabowlofwaterbeingheatedoverafire,bubbling
andboiling.Ifamanwithgoodsightweretoexaminehisownfacialreflection
init,hewouldneitherknownorseeitasitreallyis.Sotoo,brahmin,whenone
dwellswithamindobsessedbyillwill…eventhosetextsthathavebeenrecited
overalongperioddonotrecurtothemind,letalonethosethathavenotbeen
recited.
“Again, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by dullness and
drowsiness, overwhelmed by dullness and drowsiness, and one does not
understandasitreallyistheescapefromarisendullnessanddrowsiness,onthat
occasiononeneitherknowsnorseesasitreallyisone’sowngood,orthegood
ofothers,orthegoodofboth.Theneventhosetextsthathavebeenrecitedover
alongperioddonotrecurtothemind,letalonethosethathavenotbeenrecited.
“Suppose,brahmin,thereisabowlofwatercoveredoverwithwaterplants
andalgae.Ifamanwithgoodsightweretoexaminehisownfacialreflectionin
it,hewouldneitherknownorseeitasitreallyis.Sotoo,brahmin,whenone
dwellswithamindobsessedbydullnessanddrowsiness…eventhosetextsthat
havebeenrecitedoveralongperioddonotrecurtothemind,letalonethosethat
havenotbeenrecited.
“Again,brahmin,whenonedwellswithamindobsessedbyrestlessnessand
remorse,overwhelmedbyrestlessnessandremorse,andonedoesnotunderstand
asitreallyistheescapefromarisenrestlessnessandremorse,onthatoccasion
oneneitherknowsnorseesasitreallyisone’sowngood,orthegoodofothers,
orthegood ofboth. Theneven those textsthat havebeenrecited overa long
perioddonotrecurtothemind,letalonethosethathavenotbeenrecited.
“Suppose, brahmin, there is a bowl of water stirred by the wind, rippling,
swirling,churnedintowavelets.Ifamanwithgoodsightweretoexaminehis
ownfacialreflectioninit,hewouldneitherknownorseeitasitreallyis.Sotoo,
brahmin,whenonedwellswithamindobsessedbyrestlessnessandremorse...
eventhose textsthat have been recited over a longperiod do not recur tothe
mind,letalonethosethathavenotbeenrecited.
“Again, brahmin, when one dwells with a mind obsessed by doubt,
overwhelmedbydoubt, andone doesnot understandasit reallyis the escape
from arisen doubt, on that occasion one neither knows nor sees asit really is
one’s own good, or the good ofothers, or thegood ofboth. Theneven those
textsthathavebeenrecitedoveralongperioddonotrecurtothemind,letalone
thosethathavenotbeenrecited.
“Suppose,brahmin,thereisabowlofwaterthatisturbid,unsettled,muddy,
placed in the dark. If a man with good sight were to examine his own facial
reflectioninit,hewouldneitherknownorseeitasitreallyis.Sotoo,brahmin,
whenonedwellswithamindobsessedbydoubt...eventhosetextsthathave
beenrecitedoveralongperioddonotrecurtothemind,letalonethosethathave
notbeenrecited.
“This,brahmin,isthereasonwhyeventhosetextsthathavebeenrecitedover
alongperioddonotrecurtothemind,letalonethosethathavenotbeenrecited.
“Brahmin,whenonedwellswithamindthatisnotobsessedbysensuallust,
ill will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness and remorse, and doubt, on that
occasioneventhosetextsthathavenotbeenrecitedoveralongperiodrecurto
themind,letalonethosethathavebeenrecited.
“Suppose,brahmin,thereisabowlofwaterthatisnotmixedwithdyes;not
bubblingandboiling;notcoveredoverwithwaterplantsandalgae;notstirred
bythewindandchurnedintowavelets;clear,serene,limpid,setoutinthelight.
If a man with good sight were to examine his own facial reflection in it, he
wouldknowandseeitasitreallyis.Sotoo,brahmin,whenonedwellswitha
mind that is not obsessed by sensual lust, ill will, dullness and drowsiness,
restlessnessandremorse,anddoubtonthatoccasioneventhosetextsthathave
notbeenrecitedoveralongperiodrecurtothemind,letalonethosethathave
beenrecited.
“This,brahmin,isthereasonwhyeventhosetextsthathavenotbeenrecited
overalongperiodrecurtothemind,letalonethosethathavebeenrecited.”…
When this was said, the brahmin Saṅgārava said to the Blessed One:
“Magnificent, Master Gotama!… Let Master Gotama accept me as a lay
followerwhohasgoneforrefugefromtodayuntillife’send.”
(SN46:55,abridged;V121–26)
4.THEREFINEMENTOFTHEMIND
“Thereare,Omonks,grossimpuritiesingold,suchasearthandsand,graveland
grit.Nowthegoldsmithorhisapprenticefirstpoursthegoldintoatroughand
washes, rinses, and cleans it thoroughly. When he has done this, there still
remainmoderateimpuritiesinthegold,suchasfinegritandcoarsesand.Then
thegoldsmithorhisapprenticewashes,rinses,andcleansitagain.Whenhehas
donethis,therestillremainminuteimpuritiesinthegold,suchasfinesandand
black dust. Now the goldsmith or his apprentice repeats the washing, and
thereafteronlythegolddustremains.
“Henowpoursthegoldintoameltingpot,smeltsit,andmeltsittogether.But
hedoesnotyettakeitoutfromthevessel,asthedrosshasnotyetbeenentirely
removed and the gold is not yet quite pliant, workable, and bright; it is still
brittleanddoesnotyetlenditselfeasilytomolding.Butatimecomeswhenthe
goldsmithorhisapprenticerepeatsthemeltingthoroughly,sothattheflawsare
entirelyremoved.Thegoldisnowquitepliant,workable,andbright,anditlends
itselfeasilytomolding.Whateverornamentthegoldsmithnowwishestomake
ofit,beitadiadem,earrings,anecklace,oragoldenchain,thegoldcannowbe
usedforthatpurpose.
“Itissimilar,monks,withamonkdevotedtothetraininginthehighermind:
there are in him gross impurities, namely, bad conduct of body, speech, and
mind.Suchconductanearnest,capablemonkabandons,dispels,eliminates,and
abolishes.
“Whenhehasabandonedthese,therearestillimpuritiesofamoderatedegree
thatclingtohim,namely,sensualthoughts,thoughtsofillwill,andthoughtsof
harming.
15
Such thoughts an earnest, capable monk abandons, dispels,
eliminates,andabolishes.
“When he has abandoned these, there are still some subtle impurities that
cling to him, namely, thoughts about his relatives, his home country, and his
reputation. Such thoughts an earnest, capable monk abandons dispels,
eliminates,andabolishes.
“When he has abandoned these, there still remain thoughts about the
teaching.
16
Thatconcentrationisnotyetpeacefulandsublime;ithasnotattained
to full tranquillity, nor has it achieved mental unification; it is maintained by
strenuoussuppressionofthedefilements.
“But there comes a time when his mind becomes inwardly steadied,
composed, unified, and concentrated. That concentration is then calm and
refined;ithasattainedtofulltranquillityandachievedmentalunification;itis
notmaintainedbystrenuoussuppressionofthedefilements.
“Then,towhatevermentalstaterealizablebydirectknowledgehedirectshis
mind, he achieves the capacity of realizing that state by direct knowledge,
wheneverthenecessaryconditionsobtain.
17
“Ifhewishes:‘MayIwieldthevariouskindsofspiritualpower:havingbeen
one,mayIbecomemany;havingbeenmany,mayIbecomeone;mayIappear
and vanish; go unhindered through a wall, through a rampart, through a
mountainasifthroughspace;divein and outoftheearthasif it werewater;
walkonwaterwithoutsinkingasifitwereearth;travelthroughtheskylikea
bird while seated cross-legged; touch and stroke with my hand the moon and
sun,sopowerfulandmighty;exercisemasterywithmybodyevenasfarasthe
brahma world’—he achieves the capacity of realizing that state by direct
knowledge,wheneverthenecessaryconditionsobtain.
“Ifhewishes:‘Withthedivineearelement,whichispurifiedandsurpasses
thehuman,mayIhearbothkindsofsounds,thedivineandhuman,thosethatare
faras well as near’—heachieves the capacity of realizingthat state by direct
knowledge,wheneverthenecessaryconditionsobtain.
“Ifhewishes:‘MayIunderstandthemindsofotherbeings,ofotherpersons,
havingencompassedthemwith myownmind. MayIunderstand amindwith
lustasamindwithlust;amindwithoutlustasamindwithoutlust;amindwith
hatredasamindwithhatred;amindwithouthatredasamindwithouthatred;a
mindwithdelusionasamindwithdelusion;amindwithoutdelusionasamind
without delusion; a contracted mind as contracted, and a distracted mind as
distracted; an exalted mind as exalted, and an unexalted mind as unexalted; a
surpassablemindassurpassable,andanunsurpassablemindasunsurpassable;a
concentrated mind as concentrated, and an unconcentrated mind as
unconcentrated; a liberated mind as liberated, and an unliberated mind as
unliberated’—he achieves the capacity of realizing that state by direct
knowledge,wheneverthenecessaryconditionsobtain.
“Ifhewishes,‘MayIrecollectmymanifoldpastlives…[seeTextII,3(2)§38]
…withtheirmodesanddetails’—heachievesthecapacityofrealizingthatstate
bydirectknowledge,wheneverthenecessaryconditionsobtain.
“If he wishes, ‘With the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the
human,mayIseebeingspassingawayandbeingreborn,inferiorandsuperior,
beautiful and ugly, fortunate and unfortunate … [see Text II,3(2)§40] … and
understandhowbeingsfareoninaccordancewiththeiraction’—heachievesthe
capacity of realizing that state by direct knowledge, whenever the necessary
conditionsobtain.
“Ifhewishes,‘Bythedestructionofthetaints,mayIinthisverylifeenterand
dwellin thetaintless liberationof mind,liberationby wisdom, realizing itfor
myselfwithdirectknowledge’—heachievesthecapacityofrealizingthatstate
bydirectknowledge,wheneverthenecessaryconditionsobtain.”
(AN3:100§§1–10;I253–56)
5.THEREMOVALOFDISTRACTINGTHOUGHTS
1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatSāvatthīin
Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s Park. There he addressed the monks thus:
“Monks.”—“Venerablesir,”theyreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
2.“Monks,whenamonkispursuingthehighermind,fromtimetotimehe
shouldgiveattentiontofivesigns.
18
Whatarethefive?
3.(i)“Here,monks,whenamonkisgivingattentiontosomesign,andowing
tothatsignthereariseinhimevilunwholesomethoughtsconnectedwithdesire,
hate,anddelusion,thenheshouldgiveattentiontosomeothersignconnected
with what is wholesome.
19
When he gives attention to some other sign
connected with what is wholesome, then any evil unwholesome thoughts
connected with desire, hate, and delusion are abandoned in him and subside.
Withtheirabandoninghismindbecomessteadiedinternally,composed,unified,
andconcentrated.Justasaskilledcarpenterorhisapprenticemightknockout,
remove,andextractacoarsepegbymeansofafineone,sotoo...whenamonk
gives attention to some other sign connected with what is wholesome … his
mindbecomessteadiedinternally,composed,unified,andconcentrated.
4.(ii)“If,whileheisgivingattentiontosomeothersignconnectedwithwhat
iswholesome,therestillariseinhimevilunwholesomethoughtsconnectedwith
desire,hate,anddelusion,thenheshouldexaminethedangerinthosethoughts
thus: ‘These thoughts are unwholesome, reprehensible, resulting in suffering.’
When he examines the danger in those thoughts, then any evil unwholesome
thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion are abandoned in him and
subside.Withtheirabandoninghismindbecomessteadiedinternally,composed,
unified,andconcentrated.Justasamanorawoman,young,youthful,andfond
ofornaments,wouldbehorrified,humiliated,anddisgustedifthecarcassofa
snakeoradogorahumanbeingwerehungaroundhisorherneck,sotoo...
when a monk examines the danger in those thoughts … his mind becomes
steadiedinternally,composed,unified,andconcentrated.
5.(iii)“If,whileheisexaminingthedangerinthosethoughts,therestillarise
in him evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion,
thenheshouldtrytoforgetthosethoughtsandshouldnotgiveattentiontothem.
Whenhetriestoforgetthosethoughtsanddoesnotgiveattentiontothem,then
any evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion are
abandoned in him and subside. With their abandoning his mind becomes
steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. Just as a man with
goodeyeswhodidnotwanttoseeformsthathadcomewithinrangeofsight
wouldeithershuthiseyesorlookaway,sotoo...whenamonktriestoforget
thosethoughtsanddoesnotgiveattentiontothem...hismindbecomessteadied
internally,composed,unified,andconcentrated.
6. (iv) “If, while he is trying to forget those thoughts and is not giving
attentiontothem,therestillariseinhimevilunwholesomethoughtsconnected
with desire, hate, and delusion, then he should give attention to stilling the
thought-formation of those thoughts.
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When he gives attention to stilling the
thought-formation of those thoughts, then any evil unwholesome thoughts
connected with desire, hate, and delusion are abandoned in him and subside.
Withtheirabandoninghismindbecomessteadiedinternally,composed,unified,
andconcentrated.Justasamanwalkingfastmightconsider:‘WhyamIwalking
fast?WhatifIwalkslowly?’andhewouldwalkslowly;thenhemightconsider:
‘WhyamIwalkingslowly?WhatifIstand?’andhewouldstand;thenhemight
consider:‘WhyamIstanding?WhatifIsit?’andhewouldsit;thenhemight
consider:
‘WhyamIsitting?WhatifIliedown?’andhewouldliedown.Bydoingsohe
wouldsubstituteforeachgrosserpostureonethatwassubtler.Sotoo...whena
monkgivesattentiontostillingthethought-formationofthosethoughts…his
mindbecomessteadiedinternally,composed,unified,andconcentrated.
7.(v)“If,whileheisgivingattentiontostillingthethought-formationofthose
thoughts, there still arise in him evil unwholesome thoughts connected with
desire,hate,anddelusion,then,withhisteethclenchedandhistonguepressed
againsttheroofofhismouth,heshouldbeatdown,constrain,andcrushmind
withmind.When,withhisteethclenchedandhistonguepressedagainsttheroof
ofhismouth,hebeatsdown,constrains,andcrushesmindwithmind,thenany
evil unwholesome thoughts connected with desire, hate, and delusion are
abandoned in him and subside. With their abandoning his mind becomes
steadied internally, composed, unified, and concentrated. Just as a strong man
mightseizeaweakermanbytheheadorshouldersandbeathimdown,constrain
him, and crush him, so too ... when, with his teeth clenched and his tongue
pressed against the roof of his mouth, a monk beats down, constrains, and
crushes mind with mind ... his mind becomes steadied internally, composed,
unified,andconcentrated.
8.“Monks,whenamonkisgivingattentiontosomesign,andowingtothat
signthereariseinhimevilunwholesomethoughtsconnectedwithdesire,hate,
anddelusion,then when hegives attention tosomeother signconnectedwith
whatiswholesome,anysuchevilunwholesomethoughtsareabandonedinhim
and subside, and with their abandoning his mind becomes steadied internally,
composed, unified, and concentrated. When he examines the danger in those
thoughts ... his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and
concentrated.Whenhetriestoforgetthosethoughtsanddoesnotgiveattention
to them ... his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and
concentrated.Whenhegivesattentiontostillingthethought-formationofthose
thoughts … his mind becomes steadied internally, composed, unified, and
concentrated.When,withhisteethclenchedandhistonguepressedagainstthe
roofofhismouth,hebeatsdown,constrains,andcrushesmindwithmind,any
such evil unwholesome thoughts are abandoned in him and subside, and with
theirabandoning,hismindbecomessteadiedinternally,composed,unified,and
concentrated.Thismonkisthencalled amasterofthecourses ofthought.He
willthinkwhateverthoughthewishestothinkandhewillnotthinkanythought
thathedoesnotwishtothink.Hehasseveredcraving,flungoffthefetters,and
withthecompletepenetrationofconceithehasmadeanendofsuffering.”
ThatiswhattheBlessedOnesaid.Themonksweresatisfiedanddelightedin
theBlessedOne’swords.
(MN20:VitakkasaṇṭhānaSutta;I118–22)
6.THEMINDOFLOVING-KINDNESS
11.“Monks,therearethesefivecoursesofspeechthatothersmayusewhenthey
addressyou:their speechmay betimelyor untimely, trueor untrue,gentle or
harsh,connectedwithgoodorwithharm,spokenwithamindofloving-kindness
orinamoodofhate.Whenothersaddressyou,theirspeechmaybetimelyor
untimely; when others address you, theirspeech may be true or untrue; when
others address you, their speech may be gentle or harsh; when others address
you, their speech may be connected with good or with harm; when others
addressyou,theirspeechmaybespokenwithamindofloving-kindnessorina
mood of hate. Herein, monks, you should train thus: ‘Our minds will remain
unaffected,andweshallutternobitterwords;weshallabidecompassionatefor
theirwelfare,withamindofloving-kindness,neverinamoodofhate.Weshall
abide pervading that person with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, and
startingwiththatperson,
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weshallabidepervadingtheall-encompassingworld
with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, abundant, exalted, immeasurable,
withouthostility,andwithoutillwill.’Thatishowyoushouldtrain,monks….
20.“Monks,evenifbanditsweretoseveryousavagelylimbbylimbwitha
two-handledsaw,hewhogaverisetoamindofhatetowardthemwouldnotbe
carryingoutmyteaching.Herein,monks,youshouldtrainthus:‘Ourmindswill
remain unaffected, and we shall utter no bitter words; we shall abide
compassionate for their welfare, with a mind of loving-kindness, never in a
moodofhate.Weshallabidepervadingthemwithamindimbuedwithloving-
kindness;andstartingwiththem,weshallabidepervadingtheall-encompassing
world with a mind imbued with loving-kindness, abundant, exalted,
immeasurable, without hostility, and without ill will.’ That is how you should
train,monks.
21. “Monks, if you keep this advice on the simile of the saw constantly in
mind, do you see any course of speech, trivial or gross, that you could not
endure?”—“No, venerable sir.”—“Therefore, monks, you should keep this
adviceonthesimileofthesawconstantlyinmind.Thatwillleadtoyourwelfare
andhappinessforalongtime.”
(fromMN21:KakacūpamaSutta;I126–27,129)
7.THESIXRECOLLECTIONS
OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingatKapilavatthuintheBanyan-
treeMonastery.ThenMahānāmatheSakyanapproachedtheBlessedOne,paid
homagetohim,satdowntooneside,andsaid:
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“Venerablesir, in what way does a noble disciple often dwell when he has
arrivedatthefruitandunderstoodtheteaching?”
23
“When,Mahānāma,anobledisciplehasarrivedatthefruitandunderstoodthe
teaching,heoftendwellsinsuchawayasthis.Here,anobledisciplerecollects
the Tathāgata thus: ‘The Blessed One is an arahant, perfectly enlightened,
accomplished in true knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of theworld,
unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the
Enlightened One, the Blessed One.’ When a noble disciple recollects the
Tathāgata thus, on that occasion his mind is not obsessed by lust, hatred, or
delusion;hismindisstraight,withtheTathāgataasitsobject.Anobledisciple
whosemindisstraightgainstheinspirationofthemeaning,theinspirationofthe
Dhamma, gains gladness connected with the Dhamma. When he is gladdened
rapturearises;foroneupliftedbyrapturethebodybecomescalm;onecalmin
bodyfeelshappy;foronewhoishappythemindbecomesconcentrated.Thisis
called a noble disciple who dwells evenly amid an uneven population, who
dwellswithoutafflictionamidanafflictedpopulation,whohasentereduponthe
streamoftheDhammaanddevelopsrecollectionoftheBuddha.
“Further, Mahānāma, a noble disciple recollects the Dhamma thus: ‘The
Dhamma is well expounded by the Blessed One, directly visible, immediate,
inviting one to come and see, worthy of application, to be personally
experiencedbythewise.’WhenanobledisciplerecollectstheDhammathus,on
thatoccasionhismindisnotobsessedbylust,hatred,ordelusion;hismindis
straight,withtheDhammaasitsobject.…Thisiscalledanobledisciplewho
dwellsevenlyamidanunevenpopulation,whodwellswithoutafflictionamidan
afflicted population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma and
developsrecollectionoftheDhamma.
“Further,Mahānāma,anobledisciplerecollectstheSaṅghathus:‘TheSaṅgha
oftheBlessedOne’sdisciplesispracticingthegoodway,practicingthestraight
way,practicingthetrueway,practicingtheproperway;thatis,thefourpairsof
persons, the eight types of individuals—this Saṅgha of the Blessed One’s
disciplesisworthyofgifts,worthyofhospitality,worthyofofferings,worthyof
reverential salutation, the unsurpassed field of merit for the world.’ When a
noble disciple recollects the Saṅgha thus, on that occasion his mind is not
obsessedbylust,hatred,ordelusion;hismindisstraight,withtheSaṅghaasits
object.… This is called a noble disciple who dwells evenly amid an uneven
population,whodwellswithoutafflictionamidanafflictedpopulation,whohas
entered upon the stream of the Dhamma and develops recollection of the
Saṅgha.
“Further,Mahānāma,anobledisciplerecollectshisownmoraldisciplinethus:
‘I possess the moral virtues dear to the noble ones, unbroken, untorn,
unblemished, unmottled, freeing, praised by the wise, ungrasped, leading to
concentration.’Whenanobledisciplerecollectshisownmoraldisciplinethus,
onthatoccasionhismindisnotobsessedbylust,hatred,ordelusion;hismindis
straight,withvirtueasitsobject.…Thisiscalledanobledisciplewhodwells
evenly amid an uneven population, who dwells without affliction amid an
afflicted population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma and
developsrecollectionofmoraldiscipline.
“Further,Mahānāma,anobledisciplerecollectshisowngenerositythus:‘Itis
againforme,itiswellgainedbyme,thatinapopulationobsessedbythestain
of stinginess, I dwell at home with a mind devoid of the stain of stinginess,
freely generous, open-handed, delighting in relinquishment, one devoted to
charity,delightingingivingandsharing.Whenanobledisciplerecollectshis
owngenerositythus,onthatoccasionhismindisnotobsessedbylust,hatred,or
delusion;his mind is straight, withgenerosity as its object.… Thisis called a
noble disciple who dwells evenly amid an uneven population, who dwells
withoutafflictionamidanafflictedpopulation,whohasentereduponthestream
oftheDhammaanddevelopsrecollectionofgenerosity.
“Further,Mahānāma,anoblediscipledevelopstherecollectionofthedevas
thus:‘Therearedevasinthevariousheavenlyrealms.
24
There isfound in me
such faith, moral discipline, learning, generosity, and wisdom as those devas
possessedbecauseofwhich,whentheypassedawayfromthisworld,theywere
rebornthere.’Whenanobledisciplerecollectshisownfaith,moraldiscipline,
learning,generosity,andwisdom,aswellasthoseofthedevas,onthatoccasion
hismindisnotobsessedbylust,hatred,ordelusion;hismindisstraight,with
thedevasasitsobject.…Thisiscalledanobledisciplewhodwellsevenlyamid
an uneven population, who dwells without affliction amid an afflicted
population, who has entered upon the stream of the Dhamma and develops
recollectionofthedevas.
“Anobledisciple,Mahānāma,whohasarrivedatthefruitandunderstoodthe
teachingoftendwellsinjustthisway.”
(AN6:10;III284–88)
8.THEFOURESTABLISHMENTSOFMINDFULNESS
1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingintheKuru
countrywheretherewasatownoftheKurusnamedKammāsadhamma.There
he addressed the monks thus: “Monks.”—“Venerable sir,” they replied. The
BlessedOnesaidthis:
2.“Monks,this istheone-way path
25
for thepurification of beings, forthe
surmounting of sorrow and lamentation, for the passing away of pain and
dejection, for the attainment of the trueway, for the realization of Nibbāna—
namely,thefourestablishmentsofmindfulness.
3.“Whatarethefour?Here,monks,amonkdwellscontemplatingthebodyin
thebody,ardent,clearlycomprehending,andmindful,havingsubduedlonging
and dejection in regard to the world.
26
He dwells contemplating feelings in
feelings, ardent, clearly comprehending, and mindful, having subdued longing
and dejection in regard to the world. He dwells contemplating mind in mind,
ardent, clearly comprehending, and mindful, having subdued longing and
dejection in regard to the world. He dwells contemplating phenomena in
phenomena, ardent, clearly comprehending, and mindful, having subdued
longinganddejectioninregardtotheworld.
27
[contemplationofthebody]
[1.MindfulnessofBreathing]
4.“Andhow,monks,doesamonkdwellcontemplatingthebodyinthebody?
Hereamonk,gonetotheforest,tothefootofatree,ortoanemptyhut,sits
down;havingfoldedhislegscrosswise,straightenedhisbody,andestablished
mindfulnessinfrontofhim,justmindfulhebreathesin,mindfulhebreathesout.
Breathinginlong,heunderstands:‘Ibreatheinlong’;orbreathingoutlong,he
understands:‘Ibreatheoutlong.’Breathinginshort,heunderstands:‘Ibreathe
inshort’;orbreathingoutshort,heunderstands:‘Ibreatheoutshort.’
28
Hetrains
thus: ‘I will breathe in experiencing the whole body’; he trains thus: ‘I will
breathe out experiencing the whole body.’
29
He trains thus: ‘I will breathe in
tranquilizing the bodily formation’; he trains thus: ‘I will breathe out
tranquilizing the bodily formation.’
30
Just as a skilled lathe-worker or his
apprentice,whenmakingalongturn,understands:‘Imakealongturn’;or,when
makingashortturn,understands:‘Imakeashortturn’;sotoo,breathinginlong,
a monk understands: ‘I breathe in long’ ... he trains thus: ‘I will breathe out
tranquilizingthebodilyformation.’
5.“Inthiswayhedwellscontemplatingthebodyinthebodyinternally,orhe
dwells contemplating the body in the body externally, or he dwells
contemplatingthebodyinthebodybothinternallyandexternally.
31
Orelsehe
dwells contemplating in the body its nature of arising, or he dwells
contemplatinginthebodyitsnatureofvanishing,orhedwellscontemplatingin
the body its nature of both arising and vanishing.
32
Or else mindfulness that
‘thereis a body’is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare
knowledgeandrepeatedmindfulness.Andhedwellsindependent,notclinging
toanythingintheworld.Thatishowamonkdwellscontemplatingthebodyin
thebody.
[2.TheFourPostures]
6. “Again, monks, when walking, a monk understands: ‘I am walking’; when
standing,heunderstands: ‘Iam standing’;when sitting, heunderstands: ‘Iam
sitting’;whenlyingdown,heunderstands:‘Iamlyingdown’;orheunderstands
accordinglyhoweverhisbodyisdisposed.
33
7. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally,
externally,andbothinternallyandexternally.…Andhedwellsindependent,not
clingingtoanythingintheworld.Thattooishowamonkdwellscontemplating
thebodyinthebody.
[3.ClearComprehension]
8.“Again,monks,amonkisonewhoactswithclearcomprehensionwhengoing
forwardandreturning;
34
whoactswithclearcomprehensionwhenlookingahead
and looking away; who acts with clear comprehension when bending and
stretchinghislimbs;whoactswithclearcomprehensionwhenwearinghisrobes
andcarryinghisouterrobeandbowl;whoactswithclearcomprehensionwhen
eating,drinking,chewing,andtasting;whoactswithclearcomprehensionwhen
defecating and urinating; who acts with clear comprehension when walking,
standing,sitting,fallingasleep,wakingup,talking,andkeepingsilent.
9. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally,
externally,andbothinternallyandexternally.…Andhedwellsindependent,not
clingingtoanythingintheworld.Thattooishowamonkdwellscontemplating
thebodyinthebody.
[4.UnattractivenessoftheBody]
10.“Again,monks,amonkreviewsthissamebodyupfromthesolesofthefeet
anddownfromthetopofthehair,boundedbyskin,asfullofmanykindsof
impuritythus:‘Inthisbodythere arehead-hairs,body-hairs,nails,teeth,skin,
flesh, sinews, bones, bone-marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, diaphragm, spleen,
lungs,intestines,mesentery,stomach,feces,bile,phlegm,pus,blood,sweat,fat,
tears, grease, spittle, snot, oil of the joints, and urine.’
35
Just as though there
wereabagwithanopeningatbothendsfullofmanysortsofgrain,suchashill
rice,redrice,beans,peas,millet,andwhiterice,andamanwithgoodeyeswere
toopenitandreviewitthus:‘Thisishillrice,thisisredrice,thesearebeans,
thesearepeas,thisismillet,thisiswhiterice’;sotoo,amonkreviewsthissame
body…asfullofmanykindsofimpuritythus:‘Inthisbodytherearehead-hairs
…andurine.’
11. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally,
externally,andbothinternallyandexternally.…Andhedwellsindependent,not
clingingtoanythingintheworld.Thattooishowamonkdwellscontemplating
thebodyinthebody.
[5.Elements]
12. “Again, monks, a monk reviews this same body, however it is placed,
however disposed, as consisting of elements thus: ‘In this body there are the
earthelement,thewaterelement,thefireelement,andtheairelement.’
36
Justas
thoughaskilledbutcherorhisapprenticehadkilledacowandwereseatedatthe
crossroadswithitcutupintopieces;sotoo,amonkreviewsthissamebody
as consisting of elements thus: ‘In this body there are the earth element, the
waterelement,thefireelement,andtheairelement.’
13. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally,
externally,andbothinternallyandexternally.…Andhedwellsindependent,not
clingingtoanythingintheworld.Thattooishowamonkdwellscontemplating
thebodyinthebody.
[6–14.TheNineCharnelGroundContemplations]
14.“Again,monks,asthoughheweretoseeacorpsethrownasideinacharnel
ground,one,two,orthreedaysdead,bloated,livid,andoozingmatter,amonk
comparesthissamebodywithitthus:‘Thisbodytooisofthesamenature,it
willbelikethat,itisnotexemptfromthatfate.’
37
15. “In this way he dwells contemplating the body in the body internally,
externally,andbothinternallyandexternally.…Andhedwellsindependent,not
clingingtoanythingintheworld.Thattooishowamonkdwellscontemplating
thebodyinthebody.
16. “Again, as though he were to see a corpse thrown aside in a charnel
ground, being devoured by crows, hawks, vultures, dogs, jackals, or various
kindsofworms,amonkcomparesthissamebodywithitthus:‘Thisbodytoois
ofthesamenature,itwillbelikethat,itisnotexemptfromthatfate.’
17.“…Thattooishowamonkdwellscontemplatingthebodyinthebody.
18–24.“Again,asthoughheweretoseeacorpsethrownasideinacharnel
ground,askeletonwithfleshandblood,heldtogetherwithsinews…afleshless
skeleton smeared with blood, held together with sinews…a skeleton without
fleshandblood,heldtogetherwithsinews…disconnectedbonesscatteredinall
directions—hereahand-bone,thereafoot-bone,hereashin-bone,thereathigh-
bone,hereahip-bone,thereaback-bone,heretheskull—amonkcomparesthis
samebodywithitthus:‘Thisbodytooisofthesamenature,itwillbelikethat,
itisnotexemptfromthatfate.’
38
25.“…Thattooishowamonkdwellscontemplatingthebodyinthebody.
26–30.“Again,asthoughheweretoseeacorpsethrownasideinacharnel
ground,bonesbleachedwhite,thecolorofshells…bonesheapedup…bones
morethanayearold,rottedandcrumbledtodust,amonkcomparesthissame
bodywithitthus:‘Thisbodytooisofthesamenature,itwillbelikethat,itis
notexemptfromthatfate.’
31.“Inthiswayhedwellscontemplatingthebodyinthebodyinternally,orhe
dwells contemplating the body in the body externally, or he dwells
contemplating the body in the body both internally and externally. Or else he
dwells contemplating in the body its nature of arising, or he dwells
contemplatinginthebodyitsnatureofvanishing,orhedwellscontemplatingin
thebodyitsnatureofbotharisingandvanishing.Orelsemindfulnessthat‘there
is a body’ is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare
knowledgeandrepeatedmindfulness.Andhedwellsindependent,notclinging
toanythingintheworld.Thattooishowamonkdwellscontemplatingthebody
inthebody.
[contemplationoffeeling]
32.“Andhow,monks,doesamonkdwellcontemplatingfeelingsinfeelings?
39
Here, when feeling a pleasant feeling, a monk understands: ‘I feel a pleasant
feeling’;whenfeelingapainfulfeeling,heunderstands:‘Ifeelapainfulfeeling’;
when feeling a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a
neither-painful-nor-pleasantfeeling.’Whenfeelingacarnalpleasantfeeling,he
understands:‘Ifeelacarnalpleasantfeeling’;whenfeelingaspiritualpleasant
feeling,heunderstands:‘Ifeelaspiritualpleasantfeeling’;whenfeelingacarnal
painfulfeeling,heunderstands:‘Ifeelacarnalpainfulfeeling’;whenfeelinga
spiritualpainfulfeeling,heunderstands:‘Ifeelaspiritualpainfulfeeling’;when
feeling a carnal neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a
carnal neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling’; when feeling a spiritual neither-
painful-nor-pleasant feeling, he understands: ‘I feel a spiritual neither-painful-
nor-pleasantfeeling.’
33.“Inthiswayhedwellscontemplatingfeelingsinfeelingsinternally,orhe
dwellscontemplatingfeelingsinfeelingsexternally,orhedwellscontemplating
feelings in feelings both internally and externally. Or else he dwells
contemplatinginfeelingstheirnatureofarising,orhedwellscontemplatingin
feelingstheirnature ofvanishing, orhe dwells contemplatingin feelingstheir
natureofbotharisingandvanishing.
40
Orelsemindfulnessthat‘thereisfeeling’
is simply established in him to the extent necessary for bare knowledge and
repeated mindfulness. And he dwells independent, not clinging to anything in
theworld.Thatishowamonkdwellscontemplatingfeelingsinfeelings.
[contemplationofmind]
34.“Andhow,monks,doesamonkdwellcontemplatingmindinmind?
41
Herea
monkunderstandsamindwithlustasamindwithlust,andamindwithoutlust
asamindwithoutlust.Heunderstandsamindwithhatredasamindwithhatred,
andamindwithouthatredasamindwithouthatred.Heunderstandsamindwith
delusionasamindwithdelusion,andamindwithoutdelusionasamindwithout
delusion.Heunderstandsacontractedmindascontracted,andadistractedmind
asdistracted.Heunderstandsanexaltedmindasexalted,andanunexaltedmind
as unexalted. He understands a surpassable mind as surpassable, and an
unsurpassable mind as unsurpassable. He understands a concentrated mind as
concentrated,andanunconcentratedmindasunconcentrated.Heunderstandsa
liberatedmindasliberated,andanunliberatedmindasunliberated.
42
35.“Inthiswayhedwellscontemplatingmindinmindinternally,orhedwells
contemplating mind in mind externally, or he dwells contemplating mind in
mindbothinternallyandexternally.Orelsehedwellscontemplatinginmindits
natureofarising,orhedwellscontemplatinginminditsnatureofvanishing,or
hedwellscontemplatinginminditsnatureofbotharisingandvanishing.
43
Or
elsemindfulnessthat‘thereismind’issimplyestablishedinhimtotheextent
necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells
independent,notclingingtoanythingintheworld.Thatishowamonkdwells
contemplatingmindasmind.
[contemplationofphenomena]
[1.TheFiveHindrances]
36. “And how, monks, does a monk dwell contemplating phenomena in
phenomena? Here a monk dwells contemplating phenomena in phenomena in
terms of the five hindrances.
44
And how does a monk dwell contemplating
phenomenainphenomenaintermsofthefivehindrances?Here,whenthereis
sensualdesireinhim,amonkunderstands:‘Thereissensualdesireinme’;or
when there is no sensual desire in him, he understands: ‘There is no sensual
desireinme’;andhealsounderstandshowunarisensensualdesirearises,and
howarisensensualdesireisabandoned,andhowabandonedsensualdesiredoes
notariseagaininthefuture.’
45
“Whenthereisillwillinhim…Whenthereis
dullnessanddrowsinessinhim…Whenthereisrestlessnessandremorseinhim
...Whenthereisdoubtinhim,amonkunderstands:‘Thereisdoubtinme’;or
whenthereisnodoubtinhim,heunderstands:‘Thereisnodoubtinme’;andhe
also understands how the unarisen doubt arises, and how arisen doubt is
abandoned,andhowabandoneddoubtdoesnotariseagaininthefuture.
37.“Inthiswayhedwellscontemplatingphenomenainphenomenainternally,
orhe dwellscontemplating phenomenain phenomenaexternally,or he dwells
contemplatingphenomenainphenomenabothinternallyandexternally.Orelse
he dwells contemplating in phenomena their nature of arising, or he dwells
contemplating in phenomena their nature of vanishing, or he dwells
contemplatinginphenomenatheirnatureofbotharisingandvanishing.Orelse
mindfulnessthat‘therearephenomena’issimplyestablishedinhimtotheextent
necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells
independent,notclingingtoanythingintheworld.Thatishowamonkdwells
contemplatingphenomenainphenomenaintermsofthefivehindrances.
[2.TheFiveAggregates]
38.“Again,monks,amonkdwellscontemplatingphenomenainphenomenain
termsofthefiveaggregatessubjecttoclinging.
46
Andhowdoesamonkdwell
contemplatingphenomenainphenomenaintermsofthefiveaggregatesaffected
byclinging?Hereamonkunderstands:‘Suchisform,suchitsorigin,suchits
passing away; such is feeling, such its origin, such its passing away; such is
perception, such its origin, such its passing away; such are the volitional
formations, such their origin, such their passing away; such is consciousness,
suchitsorigin,suchitspassingaway.’
47
39.“Inthiswayhedwellscontemplatingphenomenainphenomenainternally,
externally,andbothinternallyandexternally.…Andhedwellsindependent,not
clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating
phenomenainphenomenaintermsofthefiveaggregatessubjecttoclinging.
[3.TheSixSenseBases]
40.“Again,monks,amonkdwellscontemplatingphenomenainphenomenain
termsofthesixinternalandexternalsensebases.
48
Andhowdoesamonkdwell
contemplatingphenomenainphenomenaintermsofthesixinternalandexternal
sense bases? Here a monk understands the eye, he understands forms, and he
understands the fetter that arises dependent on both; and he also understands
howtheunarisenfetterarises,andhowthearisenfetterisabandoned,andhow
theabandonedfetterdoesnotariseagaininthefuture.
49
“Heunderstandstheear,heunderstandssounds.…Heunderstandsthenose,
heunderstands odors.… He understands thetongue, heunderstands flavors.…
Heunderstandsthebody, heunderstandstactileobjects.…Heunderstandsthe
mind, he understands phenomena, and he understands the fetter that arises
dependentonboth;andhealsounderstandshowtheunarisenfetterarises,and
howthearisenfetterisabandoned,andhowtheabandonedfetterdoesnotarise
againinthefuture.
41.“Inthiswayhedwellscontemplatingphenomenainphenomenainternally,
externally,andbothinternallyandexternally.…Andhedwellsindependent,not
clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating
phenomenainphenomenaintermsofthesixinternalandexternalsensebases.
[4.TheSevenEnlightenmentFactors]
42.“Again,monks,amonkdwellscontemplatingphenomenainphenomenain
terms of the seven enlightenment factors.
50
And how does a monk dwell
contemplating phenomena in phenomena in terms of the seven enlightenment
factors? Here, when there is the mindfulness enlightenment factor in him, a
monk understands: ‘There is the mindfulness enlightenment factor in me’; or
when there is no mindfulness enlightenment factor in him, he understands:
‘Thereisnomindfulnessenlightenmentfactorinme’;andhealsounderstands
howthe unarisen mindfulness enlightenment factor arises, and how the arisen
mindfulnessenlightenmentfactorcomestofulfillmentbydevelopment.
“When there is the discrimination of phenomena enlightenment factor in
him...Whenthereistheenergyenlightenmentfactorinhim...Whenthereisthe
rapture enlightenment factor in him ... When there is the tranquillity
enlightenment factor inhim ... When there isthe concentration enlightenment
factor in him ... When there is the equanimity enlightenment factor in him, a
monk understands: ‘There is the equanimity enlightenment factor in me’; or
whenthereisnoequanimityenlightenmentfactorinhim,heunderstands:‘There
isnoequanimityenlightenmentfactorinme’;andhealsounderstandshowthe
unarisenequanimityenlightenmentfactorarises,andhowthearisenequanimity
enlightenmentfactorcomestofulfillmentbydevelopment.
51
43.“Inthiswayhedwellscontemplatingphenomenainphenomenainternally,
externally,andbothinternallyandexternally.…Andhedwellsindependent,not
clinging to anything in the world. That is how a monk dwells contemplating
phenomenainphenomenaintermsofthesevenenlightenmentfactors.
[5.TheFourNobleTruths]
44.“Again,monks,amonkdwellscontemplatingphenomenainphenomenain
termsoftheFourNobleTruths.
52
Andhowdoesamonkdwellcontemplating
phenomena in phenomena in terms of the Four Noble Truths? Here a monk
understandsasitreallyis:‘Thisissuffering.Thisistheoriginofsuffering.This
is the cessation of suffering. This is the way leading to the cessation of
suffering.’
45.“Inthiswayhedwellscontemplatingphenomenainphenomenainternally,
orhe dwellscontemplating phenomenain phenomenaexternally,or he dwells
contemplatingphenomenainphenomenabothinternallyandexternally.Orelse
he dwells contemplating in phenomena their nature of arising, or he dwells
contemplating in phenomena their nature of vanishing, or he dwells
contemplatinginphenomenatheirnatureofbotharisingandvanishing.Orelse
mindfulnessthat‘therearephenomena’issimplyestablishedinhimtotheextent
necessary for bare knowledge and repeated mindfulness. And he dwells
independent,notclingingtoanythingintheworld.Thatishowamonkdwells
contemplatingphenomenainphenomenaintermsoftheFourNobleTruths.
[conclusion]
46.“Monks,ifanyoneshoulddevelopthesefourestablishmentsofmindfulness
insuchawayforsevenyears,oneoftwofruitscouldbeexpectedforhim:either
final knowledge here and now, or if there is a trace of clinging left,
nonreturning.
53
“Let alone seven years, monks. If anyone should develop these four
establishmentsofmindfulnessinsuchawayforsixyears...forfiveyears...for
fouryears...forthreeyears...fortwoyears...foroneyear,oneoftwofruits
couldbeexpectedforhim:eitherfinalknowledgehereandnow,orifthereisa
traceofclingingleft,nonreturning.
“Let alone one year, monks. If anyone should develop these four
establishmentsofmindfulnessinsuchawayforsevenmonths...forsixmonths
...forfivemonths...forfourmonths...forthreemonths…fortwomonths...
foronemonth...forhalfamonth,oneoftwofruitscouldbeexpectedforhim:
either final knowledge here and now, or if there is a trace of clinging left,
nonreturning.
“Let alone half a month, monks. If anyone should develop these four
establishmentsofmindfulnessinsuchawayforsevendays,oneoftwofruits
couldbeexpectedforhim:eitherfinalknowledgehereandnow,orifthereisa
traceofclingingleft,nonreturning.
47.“Soitwaswithreferencetothisthatitwassaid:‘Monks,thisisthedirect
path for the purification of beings, for the surmounting of sorrow and
lamentation,forthepassingawayofpainanddejection,fortheattainmentofthe
true way, for the realization of Nibbāna—namely, the four establishments of
mindfulness.’”
ThatiswhattheBlessedOnesaid.Themonksweresatisfiedanddelightedin
theBlessedOne’swords.
(MN10:SatipaṭṭhānaSutta;I55–63)
9.MINDFULNESSOFBREATHING
AtSāvatthī,theVenerableĀnandaapproachedtheBlessedOne,paidhomage
tohim,satdowntooneside,andsaid:“Venerablesir,isthereonethingwhich,
when developed and cultivated, fulfills four things? And four things which,
when developed and cultivated, fulfill seven things? And seven things which,
whendevelopedandcultivated,fulfilltwothings?”
“Thereis,Ānanda,onethingwhich,whendevelopedandcultivated,fulfills
fourthings;andfourthingswhich,whendevelopedandcultivated,fulfillseven
things; and seven things which, when developed and cultivated, fulfill two
things.”
“But, venerable sir, what is the one thing which, when developed and
cultivated,fulfillsfourthings;andthefourthingswhich,whendevelopedand
cultivated,fulfillseventhings;andtheseventhingswhich,whendevelopedand
cultivated,fulfilltwothings?”
“Concentrationbymindfulnessofbreathing,Ānanda,istheonethingwhich,
whendevelopedandcultivated,fulfillsthefourestablishmentsofmindfulness.
Thefourestablishmentsofmindfulness,whendevelopedandcultivated,fulfill
the seven factors of enlightenment. The seven factors of enlightenment, when
developedandcultivated,fulfilltrueknowledgeandliberation.
[i.Fulfillingthefourestablishmentsofmindfulness]
“How, Ānanda, is concentration by mindfulness of breathing developed and
cultivated so that it fulfills the four establishments of mindfulness? Here,
Ānanda,amonk,havinggonetotheforest,tothefootofatree,ortoanempty
hut,sitsdown.
54
Havingfoldedhislegscrosswise,straightenedhisbody,andset
upmindfulnessinfrontofhim,justmindfulhebreathesin,mindfulhebreathes
out.“Breathinginlong,heknows:‘Ibreatheinlong’;orbreathingoutlong,he
knows:‘Ibreatheoutlong.’Breathinginshort,heknows:‘Ibreatheinshort’;or
breathing out short, he knows: ‘I breathe out short.’ He trains thus:
‘Experiencingthewholebody,Iwillbreathein’;hetrainsthus:‘Experiencing
the whole body, I will breathe out.’ He trains thus: ‘Tranquilizing the bodily
formation,Iwillbreathein’;hetrainsthus:‘Tranquilizingthebodilyformation,
Iwillbreatheout.’
“He trains thus: ‘Experiencing rapture, I will breathe in’; he trains thus:
‘Experiencing rapture, I will breathe out.’ He trains thus: ‘Experiencing
happiness, I will breathe in’; he trains thus: ‘Experiencing happiness, I will
breatheout.’Hetrainsthus:‘Experiencingthementalformation,Iwillbreathe
in’;hetrainsthus:‘Experiencingthementalformation,Iwillbreatheout.’He
trainsthus:‘Tranquilizingthementalformation,Iwillbreathein’;hetrainsthus:
‘Tranquilizingthementalformation,Iwillbreatheout.’
55
“He trains thus: ‘Experiencing the mind, I will breathe in’; he trains thus:
‘Experiencing the mind, I will breathe out.’ He trains thus: ‘Gladdening the
mind,Iwillbreathein’;hetrainsthus:‘Gladdeningthemind,Iwillbreatheout.’
He trains thus: ‘Concentrating the mind, I will breathe in’; he trains thus:
‘Concentratingthemind,Iwillbreatheout.’Hetrainsthus:‘Liberatingthemind,
Iwillbreathein’;hetrainsthus:‘Liberatingthemind,Iwillbreatheout.’
56
“He trains thus: ‘Contemplating impermanence, I will breathe in’; he trains
thus: ‘Contemplating impermanence, I will breathe out.’ He trains thus:
‘Contemplatingfadingaway,Iwillbreathe in’;hetrains thus: ‘Contemplating
fadingaway,Iwillbreatheout.’Hetrainsthus:‘Contemplatingcessation,Iwill
breathe in’; he trains thus: ‘Contemplating cessation, I will breathe out.’ He
trains thus: ‘Contemplating relinquishment, I will breathe in’; he trains thus:
‘Contemplatingrelinquishment,Iwillbreatheout.’
57
“Whenever, Ānanda, a monk, when breathing in long, knows: ‘I breathe in
long’...[asabove]...whenhetrainsthus:‘Tranquilizingthebodilyformation,I
willbreatheout’—onthatoccasionthemonkdwellscontemplatingthebodyin
thebody,ardent,clearlycomprehending,mindful,havingsubduedlongingand
dejectioninregardtotheworld.Forwhatreason?Icallthisacertainkindof
body,Ānanda,thatis,breathinginandbreathingout.Therefore,Ānanda,onthat
occasion the monk dwells contemplating the body in the body, ardent, clearly
comprehending,mindful,havingsubduedlonginganddejectioninregardtothe
world.
“Whenever,Ānanda,amonktrainsthus:‘Experiencingrapture,Iwillbreathe
in’ ... when he trains thus: ‘Tranquilizing the mental formation, I will breathe
out’—on that occasion the monk dwells contemplating feelings in feelings,
ardent,clearlycomprehending,mindful,havingsubduedlonginganddejection
in regard to the world. For what reason? I call this a certain kind of feeling,
Ānanda,thatis, close attentiontobreathing in andbreathingout.
58
Therefore,
Ānanda, on that occasion the monk dwells contemplating feelings in feelings,
ardent,clearlycomprehending,mindful,havingsubduedlonginganddejection
inregardtotheworld.
“Whenever, Ānanda, a monk trains thus: ‘Experiencing the mind, I will
breathein’…whenhetrainsthus:‘Liberatingthemind,Iwillbreatheout’—on
that occasion the monk dwells contemplating mind in mind, ardent, clearly
comprehending,mindful,havingsubduedlonginganddejectioninregardtothe
world. For what reason? I say, Ānanda, that there is no development of
concentration by mindfulness of breathing for one who is muddled and who
lacksclearcomprehension.Therefore,Ānanda,onthatoccasionthemonkdwells
contemplating mind in mind, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having
subduedlonginganddejectioninregardtotheworld.
“Whenever, Ānanda, a monk trains thus: ‘Contemplating impermanence, I
will breathe in’ ... when he trains thus: ‘Contemplating relinquishment, I will
breathe out’—on that occasion the monk dwells contemplating phenomena in
phenomena, ardent, clearly comprehending, mindful, having subdued longing
and dejection in regard to the world. Having seen with wisdom what is the
abandoning of longing and dejection, he is one who looks on closely with
equanimity.
59
Therefore, Ānanda, on that occasion the monk dwells
contemplating phenomena in phenomena, ardent, clearly comprehending,
mindful,havingsubduedlonginganddejectioninregardtotheworld.
“Itis,Ānanda,whenconcentrationbymindfulnessofbreathingisdeveloped
andcultivatedinthiswaythatitfulfillsthefourestablishmentsofmindfulness.
[ii.Fulfillingthesevenfactorsofenlightenment]
“Andhow,Ānanda, arethe four establishmentsof mindfulnessdeveloped and
cultivatedsothattheyfulfillthesevenfactorsofenlightenment?
“Whenever,Ānanda,amonkdwellscontemplatingthebodyinthebody,on
that occasion unmuddled mindfulness is established in that monk. Whenever,
Ānanda, unmuddled mindfulness has been established in a monk, on that
occasion the enlightenment factor of mindfulness is aroused by the monk; on
that occasion the monk develops the enlightenment factor of mindfulness; on
that occasion the enlightenment factor of mindfulness goes to fulfillment by
developmentinthemonk.
60
“Dwelling thus mindfully, he discriminates that phenomenon with wisdom,
examinesit,makesaninvestigationofit.Whenever,Ānanda,amonkdwelling
thusmindfullydiscriminatesthatphenomenonwithwisdom,examinesit,makes
aninvestigationofit,onthatoccasiontheenlightenmentfactorofdiscrimination
ofphenomena
61
isarousedbythemonk;onthatoccasionthemonkdevelopsthe
enlightenment factor of discrimination of phenomena; on that occasion the
enlightenment factor of discrimination of phenomena goes to fulfillment by
developmentinthemonk.
“Whilehediscriminatesthatphenomenonwithwisdom,examinesit, makes
an investigation of it, his energy is aroused without slackening. Whenever,
Ānanda,amonk’senergyisarousedwithoutslackeningashediscriminatesthat
phenomenon with wisdom, examines it, makes an investigation of it, on that
occasion the enlightenment factor of energy is aroused by the monk; on that
occasionthemonkdevelopstheenlightenmentfactorofenergy;onthatoccasion
the enlightenment factor of energy goes to fulfillment by development in the
monk.
“Whenhisenergyisaroused,therearisesinhimspiritualrapture.Whenever,
Ānanda, spiritual rapture arises in a monk whose energy is aroused, on that
occasion the enlightenment factor of rapture is aroused by the monk; on that
occasion the monk develops the enlightenment factor of rapture; on that
occasiontheenlightenmentfactorofrapturegoestofulfillmentbydevelopment
inthemonk.
“Foronewhosemindisupliftedbyrapturethebodybecomestranquilandthe
mindbecomestranquil.Whenever,Ānanda,thebodybecomestranquilandthe
mind becomes tranquil in a monk whose mind is uplifted by rapture, on that
occasiontheenlightenmentfactoroftranquillityisarousedbythemonk;onthat
occasion the monk develops the enlightenment factor of tranquillity; on that
occasion the enlightenment factor of tranquillity goes to fulfillment by
developmentinthemonk.
“For one whose body is tranquil and who is happy the mind becomes
concentrated. Whenever, Ānanda, the mind becomes concentrated in a monk
whose body is tranquil and who is happy, on that occasion the enlightenment
factor of concentration is aroused by the monk; on that occasion the monk
develops the enlightenment factor of concentration; on that occasion the
enlightenmentfactorofconcentrationgoestofulfillmentbydevelopmentinthe
monk.
“He becomes one who closely looks on with equanimity at the mind thus
concentrated. Whenever, Ānanda, a monk becomes one who closely looks on
with equanimity at the mind thus concentrated, on that occasion the
enlightenmentfactorofequanimityisarousedbythemonk;onthatoccasionthe
monk develops the enlightenment factor of equanimity; on that occasion the
enlightenment factor of equanimity goes to fulfillment by development in the
monk.
“Whenever, Ānanda, a monk dwells contemplating feelings in feelings
mind in mind ... phenomena in phenomena, on that occasion unmuddled
mindfulness is established in that monk. Whenever, Ānanda, unmuddled
mindfulnesshasbeenestablishedinamonk,onthatoccasiontheenlightenment
factor of mindfulness is aroused by the monk; on that occasion the monk
develops the enlightenment factor of mindfulness; on that occasion the
enlightenmentfactorofmindfulnessgoestofulfillmentbydevelopmentinthe
monk.
[All should be elaborated as in the case of the first establishment of
mindfulness.]
“He becomes one who closely looks on with equanimity at the mind thus
concentrated. Whenever, Ānanda, a monk becomes one who closely looks on
with equanimity at the mind thus concentrated, on that occasion the
enlightenmentfactorofequanimityisarousedbythemonk;onthatoccasionthe
monk develops the enlightenment factor of equanimity; on that occasion the
enlightenment factor of equanimity goes to fulfillment by development in the
monk.
“It is, Ānanda, when the four establishments of mindfulness are developed
andcultivatedinthiswaythattheyfulfillthesevenfactorsofenlightenment.
[iii.Fulfillingtrueknowledgeandliberation]
“How,Ānanda,arethesevenfactorsofenlightenmentdevelopedandcultivated
sothattheyfulfilltrueknowledgeandliberation?
“Here, Ānanda, a monk develops the enlightenment factor of mindfulness,
whichisbaseduponseclusion,dispassion,andcessation,maturinginrelease.He
develops the enlightenment factor of discrimination of phenomena … the
enlightenment factor of energy … the enlightenment factor of rapture ... the
enlightenmentfactoroftranquillity…theenlightenmentfactorofconcentration
… the enlightenment factor of equanimity, which is based upon seclusion,
dispassion,andcessation,maturinginrelease.
“It is, Ānanda, when the seven factors of enlightenment are developed and
cultivatedinthiswaythattheyfulfilltrueknowledgeandliberation.”
(SN54:13;V328–33≠MN118.15–43;III82–88)
10.THEACHIEVEMENTOFMASTERY
OnoneoccasiontheVenerableSāriputtawasdwellingatSāvatthīin
Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s Park.
62
Then one morning he dressed and,
takingbowlandrobe,enteredSāvatthīforalms.Whenhehadwalkedforalmsin
Sāvatthī and had returned from the almsround, after his meal he went to the
BlindMen’sGrovefortheday’sabiding.HavingplungedintotheBlindMen’s
Grove,hesatdownatthefootofatreefortheday’sabiding.
Then, in the evening, the Venerable Sāriputta emerged from seclusion and
went to Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s Park. The Venerable Ānanda saw him
coming in the distance and said to him: “Friend Sāriputta, your faculties are
serene, your facial complexion is pure and bright. In what dwelling have you
spenttheday?”
“Here,friend,secludedfromsensualpleasures,secludedfromunwholesome
states,Ienteredanddwelledinthefirstjhāna,whichisaccompaniedbythought
andexamination,withraptureandhappinessbornofseclusion.Yet,friend,itdid
not occur to me, ‘I am attaining the first jhāna,’ or ‘I have attained the first
jhāna,’or‘Ihaveemergedfromthefirstjhāna.’”
“ItmustbebecauseI-making,mine-making,andtheunderlyingtendencyto
conceithavebeenthoroughlyuprootedinyourmindforalongtimethatsuch
thoughtsdidnotoccurtoyou.”
63
[On another occasion the Venerable Sāriputta said:] “Here, friend, with the
subsidingofthoughtandexamination,Ienteredanddwelledinthesecondjhāna,
whichhasinternal confidenceand unificationofmind, iswithout thoughtand
examination,andhasraptureandhappinessbornofconcentration.Yet,friend,it
didnotoccur tome, ‘Iamattaining thesecond jhāna,’or‘I haveattained the
secondjhāna,’or‘Ihaveemergedfromthesecondjhāna.’”
“ItmustbebecauseI-making,mine-making,andtheunderlyingtendencyto
conceithavebeenthoroughlyuprootedinyourmindforalongtimethatsuch
thoughtsdidnotoccurtoyou.”
[On another occasion the Venerable Sāriputta said:] “Here, friend, with the
fadingawayaswellofrapture,Idwelledequanimousand,mindfulandclearly
comprehending,Iexperiencedhappinesswiththebody;Ienteredanddwelledin
the third jhāna, of which the noble onesdeclare: ‘He is equanimous, mindful,
onewhodwellshappily.’Yet,friend,itdidnotoccurtome,‘Iamattainingthe
thirdjhāna….’”[Completeasabove.]
[On another occasion the Venerable Sāriputta said:] “Here, friend, with the
abandoningofpleasureandpain,andwiththepreviouspassingawayofjoyand
displeasure,Ienteredanddwelledinthefourthjhāna,whichisneitherpainful
nor pleasant and includes the purification of mindfulness by equanimity. Yet,
friend,itdidnotoccurtome,‘Iamattainingthefourthjhāna….’”
[On another occasion the Venerable Sāriputta said:] “Here, friend, with the
complete transcending of perceptions of forms, with the passing away of
perceptions of sensory impingement, with nonattention to perceptions of
diversity,awarethat‘spaceisinfinite,’Ienteredanddwelledinthebaseofthe
infinityofspace.Yet,friend,itdidnotoccurtome,‘Iamattainingthebaseof
theinfinityofspace….’”
[On another occasion the Venerable Sāriputta said:] “Here, friend, by
completely transcending the base of the infinity of space, aware that
‘consciousnessis infinite,’ Ientered and dwelledin thebase of theinfinity of
consciousness.Yet,friend,itdidnotoccurtome,‘Iamattainingthebaseofthe
infinityofconsciousness….’”
[On another occasion the Venerable Sāriputta said:] “Here, friend, by
completely transcending the base of the infinity of consciousness, aware that
‘thereisnothing,’Ienteredanddwelledinthebaseofnothingness.Yet,friend,it
didnotoccurtome,‘Iamattainingthebaseofnothingness….’”
[On another occasion the Venerable Sāriputta said:] “Here, friend, by
completelytranscending thebase of nothingness, I entered and dwelled in the
baseofneither-perception-nor-nonperception.Yet,friend,itdidnotoccurtome,
‘Iamattainingthebaseofneither-perception-nor-nonperception….’”
[On another occasion the Venerable Sāriputta said:] “Here, friend, by
completely transcending the base of neither-perception-nor-nonperception, I
enteredanddwelledinthecessationofperceptionandfeeling.Yet,friend,itdid
notoccurtome,‘Iamattainingthecessationof perceptionandfeeling,’or‘I
haveattainedthecessationofperceptionandfeeling,’or‘Ihaveemergedfrom
thecessationofperceptionandfeeling.’”
64
“ItmustbebecauseI-making,mine-making,andtheunderlyingtendencyto
conceithavebeenthoroughlyuprootedinyourmindforalongtimethatsuch
thoughtsdidnotoccurtoyou.”
(SN28:1–9,combined;III235–38)
IX.ShiningtheLightofWisdom
INTRODUCTION
Thetextscitedinthelastchaptertreatedmeditationasadisciplineofmental
trainingaimedata twofoldtask:stillingthe mindandgenerating insight.The
still mind, calm and collected, is the foundation for insight. The still mind
observes phenomena as they arise and pass away, and from sustained
observation and probing exploration arises “the higher wisdom of insight into
phenomena”(adhipaññādhammavipassanā).Aswisdomgathersmomentum,it
penetratesmoreandmoredeeplyintothenatureofthings,culminatinginthefull
andcomprehensiveunderstandingcalledenlightenment(sambodhi).
The Pāli word translated here as “wisdom” ispaññā, the Pāli equivalent of
Sanskritprajñā,whichgivesitsnametothevoluminousprajñāpāramitāsūtras
ofMahāyānaBuddhism.The ideaofpaññā/prajñāastheprincipaltoolonthe
path to enlightenment, however, did not originate with the prajñāpāramitā
literaturebutisalreadydeeplyembeddedin theteachingsofEarlyBuddhism.
TheNikāyastakepaññānotonlyasapointofdoctrinebutasarichthemefor
imagery.Thus,TextsIX,1(1)–(2)speakofpaññārespectively as alight and a
knife.Itisthesupremelightbecauseitilluminatesthetruenatureofthingsand
dispels the darkness of ignorance. It is a knife—a sharp butchers knife—
becauseitcutsthroughthetangledmassofthedefilementsandtherebyopens
thewaytoliberation.
The Pāli wordpaññāisderivedfromtheverbalrootñā(Skt:jñā), meaning
“to know,” preceded by the prefix pa (Skt: pra), which merely gives the root
meaning a more dynamic nuance. So paññā/prajñā means knowing or
understanding,notasapossession,butasanaction:theactofknowing,theact
of understanding, the act of discerning. In Pāli, the verbpajānāti, “one
understands,” conveys this sense more effectively than the correlative noun
paññā.
1
Whatismeantbypaññā,however,isatypeofunderstandingsuperiorto
thatwhichoccurswhenoneunderstands,forinstance,adifficultpassageinan
economicstextbookortheimplicationsofalegalargument.Paññāsignifiesthe
understandingthatarisesthroughspiritualtraining,illuminatestherealnatureof
things,andculminatesinthemind’spurificationandliberation.Forthisreason,
despiteitsdrawbacks,Icontinuetousethefamiliar“wisdom.”
ContemporaryBuddhistliteraturecommonlyconveystwoideasaboutpaññā
thathavebecomealmostaxiomsinthepopularunderstandingofBuddhism.The
first is that paññā is exclusively nonconceptual and nondiscursive, a type of
cognitionthatdefiesallthelawsoflogicalthought;thesecond,thatpaññāarises
spontaneously,throughanactofpureintuitionassuddenandinstantaneousasa
brilliantflashoflightning.Thesetwoideasaboutpaññāarecloselyconnected.If
paññā defies all the laws of thought, it cannot be approached by any type of
conceptual activity but can arise only when the rational, discriminative,
conceptual activity of the mind has been stultified. And this stopping of
conceptualization,somewhatlikethedemolitionofabuilding,mustbearapid
one, an undermining of thought not previously prepared for by any gradual
maturationofunderstanding.Thus,inthepopularunderstandingofBuddhism,
paññā defies rationality and easily slides off into “crazy wisdom,” an
incomprehensible,mind-bogglingwayofrelatingtotheworldthatdancesatthe
thinedgebetweensuper-rationalityandmadness.
Suchideas about paññā receive no support at all from the teachings of the
Nikāyas,whichareconsistentlysane,lucid,andsober.Totakethetwopointsin
reverse order: First, far from arising spontaneously, paññā in the Nikāyas is
emphatically conditioned, arisen from an underlying matrix of causes and
conditions.Andsecond,paññāisnotbareintuition,butacareful,discriminative
understanding that at certain stages involves precise conceptual operations.
Paññāisdirectedtospecificdomainsofunderstanding.Thesedomains,known
in the Pāli commentaries as “the soil of wisdom” (paññābhūmi), must be
thoroughlyinvestigatedandmasteredthroughconceptualunderstandingbefore
direct, nonconceptual insight can effectively accomplish its work. To master
them requires analysis, discrimination, and discernment. One must be able to
abstractfromtheoverwhelmingmassoffactscertainbasicpatternsfundamental
toallexperienceandusethesepatternsastemplatesforclosecontemplationof
one’sownexperience.Iwillhavemoretosayaboutthisaswegoalong.
Theconditionalbasisforwisdomislaiddowninthethree-tierstructureofthe
Buddhisttraining.Aswehaveseen,inthethreedivisionsoftheBuddhistpath,
moraldisciplinefunctionsasthebasisforconcentrationandconcentrationasthe
basis for wisdom. Thus the immediate condition for the arising of wisdom is
concentration.AstheBuddhaoftensays:“Developconcentration,monks.One
whoisconcentratedseesthingsastheyreallyare.”
2
To“seethingsastheyreally
are” is the work of wisdom; the immediate basis for this correct seeing is
concentration.Sinceconcentrationdependsonproperbodilyandverbalconduct,
moraldisciplinetooisaconditionforwisdom.
TextIX,2givesafullerlistofeightcausesandconditionsforobtaining“the
wisdom fundamental to the spiritual life” and for bringing such wisdom to
maturity.Ofparticularinterestisthefifthcondition,whichnotonlyemphasizes
thecontributionthatstudyoftheDhammamakestothedevelopmentofwisdom
butalsoprescribesasequentialprogramofeducation.Firstone“learnsmuch”of
those“teachingsthataregoodinthebeginning,goodinthemiddle,andgoodin
theend.”Thenonememorizesthem;thenrecitesthemaloud;theninvestigates
themwiththemind;andfinally“penetratesthemwellbyview.”Thelaststep
can be equated with direct insight, but such insight is prepared for by the
preceding steps, which provide the “information” necessary for thorough
penetration to occur. From this, we can see that wisdom does not arise
automaticallyonthebasisofconcentrationbutdependsuponaclearandprecise
conceptualunderstandingoftheDhammainducedbystudy,reflection,anddeep
contemplationoftheteachings.
As a factor of the Noble Eightfold Path, wisdom is known as right view
(sammādiṭṭhi).TextIX,3,aslightlyabridgedversionoftheSammādiṭṭhiSutta,
theDiscourseonRightView(MN9),givesanexcellentoverviewofthe“soilof
wisdom.” The Venerable Sāriputta, the Buddha’s disciple who excelled in
wisdom, spoke the discourse to a group of his fellow monks. Since ancient
times,thetexthasservedasaprimerofBuddhiststudiesinthemonasteriesof
southernAsia.Accordingtotheclassicalcommentaryonthissutta,rightviewis
twofold:conceptual rightview, a clear intellectual grasp of the Dhamma; and
experiential right view, the wisdom that directly penetrates the Dhamma.
Conceptual right view, called “right view in conformity with the truths”
(saccānulomika-sammādiṭṭhi),isacorrectunderstandingoftheDhammaarrived
at by studying and examining the Buddha’s teachings in depth. Such
understanding, though conceptual rather than experiential,is by no means dry
andsterile.WhenrootedinfaithintheBuddha’senlightenmentanddrivenbya
strongdeterminationtorealizethetruthoftheDhamma,itservesasthegerm
fromwhichexperientialrightviewevolvesandthusbecomesacriticalstepin
thegrowthofwisdom.
ExperientialrightviewistherealizationofthetruthoftheDhamma—above
all, of the Four Noble Truths—in one’s own immediate experience. For this
reason it is called “right view that penetrates the truths” (saccapaṭivedha-
sammādiṭṭhi).Toarriveatdirectpenetration,onebeginswithcorrectconceptual
understanding of the teaching and, by practice, transforms this understanding
intodirectperception.Ifconceptualrightviewiscomparedtoahand—ahand
thatgraspsthetruthwiththeaidofconcepts—thenexperientialrightviewmight
becomparedtoaneye.Itistheeyeofwisdom,thevisionoftheDhamma,that
sees directly into the ultimate truth, hidden fromus for so long by our greed,
hatred,anddelusion.
The Discourse on Right View is intended to elucidate the principles that
shouldbecomprehendedbyconceptualrightviewandpenetratedbyexperiential
right view. Sāriputta expounds these principles under sixteen headings: the
wholesome and the unwholesome, the four nutriments of life, the Four Noble
Truths,thetwelvefactorsofdependentorigination,andthetaints.Itshouldbe
noted that from the second section to the end of the sutta, he frames all his
expositions in accordance with the same pattern, a pattern that reveals the
principleofconditionalitytobethescaffoldingfortheentireteaching.Whatever
phenomenonhetakesup,heexpoundsbybringingtolightitsindividualnature,
itsarising,itscessation,andthewaytoitscessation.Sincethisisthepatternthat
underlies the Four Noble Truths, I shall call it “the four-truth pattern.” This
pattern recurs throughout the Nikāyas as one of the major templates through
which phenomena are to be viewed to arrive at true wisdom. Its application
makesitclearthatnoentityisisolatedandself-enclosedbutis,rather,inherently
linkedtootherthingsinacomplexwebofdependentlyoriginatedprocesses.The
key to liberation lies in understanding the causes that sustain this web and
bringing them to an end within oneself. This is done by practicing the Noble
EightfoldPath,thewaytoextinguishthosecauses.
Theworld-transcendingrightview,arrivedatbypenetratinganyofthesixteen
subjectsexpoundedinthesutta,occursintwomainstages.Thefirststageisthe
rightviewofthetrainee(sekha),thedisciplewhohasenteredirreversiblyupon
thepathtoliberationbuthasnotyetreacheditsend.Thisstageisindicatedby
the words that open each section, “(one) who has perfect confidence in the
DhammaandhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.”Thesewordssignifyrightview
asavisionoftrueprinciples,aninsightthathasinitiatedaradicaltransformation
in the disciple but has not yet reached completion. The second stage is the
world-transcendingrightviewofthearahant,describedbytheclosingwordsof
each section. These words indicate that the disciple has used right view to
eradicatetheremainingdefilementsandhasattainedcompleteemancipation.
Insection4wearriveatwhatIcall“thedomainofwisdom,”theareastobe
exploredandpenetratedbyinsight.Manyofthetextsinthissectioncomefrom
the Saṃyutta Nikāya, whose major chapters are devoted to the principal
doctrinesof Early Buddhism. I include selections here on the five aggregates;
the six sense bases; the elements (in different numerical sets); dependent
origination;andtheFourNobleTruths.Aswesurveytheseselectionswewill
noticecertainrecurrentpatterns.
IX,4(1) The Five Aggregates. The five aggregates (pañcakkhandha) are the
maincategoriestheNikāyasusetoanalyzehumanexperience.Thefiveare:(1)
form (rūpa), the physical component of experience; (2) feeling (vedanā), the
“affective tone” of experience—either pleasant, painful, or neutral; (3)
perception (saññā), the identification of things through their distinctive marks
and features; (4) volitional formations (saṅkhārā), a term for the multifarious
mentalfactors involving volition,choice, and intention; and (5) consciousness
(viññāṇa), cognition arisen through any of the six sense faculties—eye, ear,
nose,tongue,body,andmind.
Examination of the five aggregates, the topic of the Khandhasaṃyutta
(SaṃyuttaNikāya,chapter22),iscriticaltotheBuddha’steachingforatleast
fourreasons.First,thefiveaggregatesaretheultimatereferentofthefirstnoble
truth,the noble truth of suffering(see the exposition of the first truth in Text
II,5), and since all four truths revolve around suffering, understanding the
aggregates is essential for understanding the Four Noble Truths as a whole.
Second, the five aggregates are the objective domain of clinging and as such
contributetothecausaloriginationoffuturesuffering.Third,clingingtothefive
aggregatesmustberemovedtoattainliberation.Andfourth,thekindofwisdom
neededtoremoveclingingispreciselyclearinsightintothetruenatureofthe
aggregates.TheBuddhahimselfdeclaresthatsolongashedidnotunderstand
thefiveaggregatesintermsoftheirindividualnature,arising,cessation,andthe
waytotheircessation,hedidnotclaimtohaveattainedperfectenlightenment.
Thefullunderstandingofthefiveaggregatesisataskhelikewiseenjoinsonhis
disciples. The five aggregates, he says, are the things that must be fully
understood;theirfullunderstandingbringsthedestructionofgreed,hatred,and
delusion(SN22:23).
Thewordkhandha(Skt:skandha)means,amongotherthings,aheapormass
(rāsi).Thefiveaggregatesaresocalledbecausetheyeachuniteunderonelabel
a multiplicity of phenomena that share the same defining characteristic. Thus
whatever form there is, “past, future, or present, internal or external, gross or
subtle,inferiororsuperior,farornear,”isincorporatedintotheformaggregate;
whateverfeelingthereis,“past,future,orpresent,internalorexternal,grossor
subtle, inferior or superior, far or near,” is incorporated into the feeling
aggregate;andsoforeachoftheotheraggregates.TextIX,4(1)(a)enumeratesin
simpletermstheconstituentsofeachaggregateandshowsthateachaggregate
arises and ceases in correlation with its own specific condition; the Noble
EightfoldPathisthewaytobringeachaggregatetoanend.Herewefindthe
“four-truth pattern” applied to the five aggregates, an application that follows
quitelogicallyfromtherolethatthefiveaggregatesplayinrepresentingthefirst
nobletruth.
This sutta makes a distinction between trainees and arahants similar to that
made by the Discourse on Right View. Trainees have directly known the five
aggregates by wayof the four-truthpattern and are practicing for their fading
away and cessation; they have thereby “gained a foothold (gādhanti) in this
DhammaandDiscipline.”Arahantstoohavedirectlyknownthefiveaggregates
by way of the four-truthpattern,but they have gone further than the trainees.
They have extirpated all attachment to the aggregates and are liberated by
nonclinging;thustheyarecalled“consummateones”(kevalino)whocannotbe
describedbywayoftheroundofrebirths.
Adetailedcatechismontheaggregates,treatingthemfromdiverseangles,can
be found in Text IX,4(1) (b). Because the five aggregates that make up our
ordinary experience are the objective domain of clinging (upādāna), they are
commonly called the five aggregates subject to clinging
(pañc’upādānakkhandhā). Clinging to the five aggregates occurs in two
principal modes, which we might call appropriation and identification. One
eithergraspsthemandtakespossessionofthem,thatis,oneappropriatesthem;
oroneusesthemasthe basis forviewsaboutone’sselfor forconceit(“Iam
betterthan,asgoodas,inferiortoothers”),thatis,oneidentifieswiththem.As
theNikāyasputit,wearepronetothinkoftheaggregatesthus:“Thisismine,
this I am, this is my self” (etaṃ mama, eso ’ham asmi, eso me attā). In this
phrase,thenotion“Thisismine”representstheactofappropriation,afunction
ofcraving(taṇhā).Thenotions“ThisIam”and“Thisismyself”representtwo
types of identification, the former expressing conceit (māna), the latter views
(diṭṭhi).
3
TheFiveAggregates(basedonSN22:56–57and22:95)
Givingupcravingissodifficultbecausecravingisreinforcedbyviews,which
rationalizeouridentificationwiththeaggregatesandthusequipcravingwitha
protectiveshield.Thetypeofviewthatliesatthebottomofallaffirmationof
selfhoodiscalledidentityview(sakkāyadiṭṭhi).Thesuttasoftenmentiontwenty
typesofidentityview,obtainedbyconsideringone’sselftostandinanyoffour
relationstoeachofthefiveaggregates:eitherasidenticalwithit,aspossessing
it,ascontainingit,orascontainedwithinit.The“uninstructedworldling”holds
some kind of identity view; “the instructed noble disciple,” having seen with
wisdomtheselflessnatureoftheaggregates,nolongerregardstheaggregatesas
a self or the belongings of a self. Adopting any of these views is a cause of
anxietyanddistress.Itisalsoaleashthatkeepsusboundtotheroundofrebirths
—seeabove,TextI,2(3)andTextI,4(5).
All the defilements ultimately stem from ignorance, which thus lies at the
bottomofallsufferingandbondage.Ignoranceweavesanetofthreedelusions
aroundtheaggregates.Thesedelusionsarethenotionsthatthefiveaggregates
are permanent, a source of true happiness, and a self. The wisdom needed to
break the spell of these delusions is the insight into the five aggregates as
impermanent(anicca), suffering (dukkha), and nonself (anattā). This is called
thedirectknowledgeofthethreecharacteristicsofexistence(tilakkhaṇa).
Some suttas seem to make insight into one or another of the three
characteristics alone sufficient for reaching the goal. However, the three
characteristicsarecloselyinterwoven,andthusthemostcommonformulafound
in the Nikāyas builds upon their internal relationship. First enunciated in the
Buddha’sseconddiscourseatBārāṇasī—TextIX,4(1)(c)—theformulausesthe
characteristicofimpermanencetorevealthecharacteristicofsuffering,andboth
togethertorevealthecharacteristicofnonself.Thesuttastakethisindirectroute
tothecharacteristicofnonselfbecausetheselflessnatureofthingsissosubtle
that often it cannot be seen except when pointed to by the other two
characteristics. When we recognize that the things we identify as our self are
impermanentandboundupwithsuffering,werealizethattheylacktheessential
marksofauthenticselfhoodandwetherebystopidentifyingwiththem.
The different expositions of the three characteristics all thus eventually
convergeontheeradicationofclinging.Theydosobyshowing,withregardto
eachaggregate,“Thisisnotmine,thisIamnot,thisisnotmyself.”Thismakes
theinsightintononselftheculminationandconsummationofthecontemplation
of the three characteristics. While the characteristic of nonself is usually
approached through the other two characteristics, as in Text IX,4(1)(d), it is
sometimesdisclosed directly. An exampleof the direct approach to nonself is
Text IX,4(1)(e), the discourse on “the lump of foam,” which uses five
memorablesimilestorevealtheemptynatureofthefiveaggregates.According
to the standard formula, insight into the five aggregates as impermanent,
suffering, and nonself induces disenchantment (nibbidā), dispassion (virāga),
and liberation (vimutti). One who attains liberation subsequently wins “the
knowledgeandvisionofliberation,”theassurancethattheroundofrebirthshas
indeedbeenstoppedandnothingmoreremainstobedone.
Anotherpatternthatthesuttasoftenapplytothefiveaggregates,andtothe
other groups of phenomena, is the triad of gratification, danger, and escape.
TextsVI,2(1)–(3),fromtheAṅguttaraNikāya,applythistriadtotheworldasa
whole. The Saṃyutta Nikāya applies the same scheme individually to the
aggregates, sense bases, and elements. The pleasure and joy each aggregate,
sensebase,andelementoffersisitsgratification;itsimpermanence,pervasion
bysuffering,andnaturetochangeisitsdanger;andtheabandoningofdesireand
lustforitistheescapefromit.
IX,4(2) The Six Sense Bases. The Saḷāyatanasaṃyutta, the Connected
DiscoursesontheSixSenseBases(SaṃyuttaNikāya,chapter35),containsover
twohundredshortsuttasonthesensebases.Thesixinternalandexternalsense
bases provide a perspective on the totality of experience different from, but
complementaryto,theperspectiveprovidedbytheaggregates.Thesixpairsof
basesarethesensefacultiesandtheircorrespondingobjects,whichsupportthe
arisingoftherespectivetypeofconsciousness.Becausetheymediatebetween
consciousness and its objects, the internal sense bases are spoken of as the
“bases for contact” (phassāyatana), “contact” (phassa) being the coming
togetherofsensefaculty,object,andconsciousness.
TheSixInternalandExternalSenseBases
Whatthefirstfivesensebasesandtheirobjectssignifyisobviousenough,but
thesixthpair,mind(mano)andphenomena(dhammā),presentssomedifficulty.
Ifwetreatthetwotermsasparalleltotheotherinternalandexternalbases,we
would understand the mind base to be the support for the arising of mind-
consciousness (manoviññāṇa) and the phenomena base to be the objective
sphereofmind-consciousness.Onthisinterpretation,“mind”mightbetakenas
thepassiveflowofconsciousnessfromwhichactiveconceptualconsciousness
emerges,and“phenomena”aspurelymentalobjectssuchasthoseapprehended
by introspection, imagination, and reflection. The Abhidhamma and the Pāli
commentaries,however,interpretthetwotermsdifferently.Theyholdthatthe
mindbasecomprisesallclassesofconsciousness,thatis,theyincludewithinit
all six types of consciousness. They also hold that all actual entities not
comprised in the other sense bases constitute the phenomena base. The
phenomena base, then, includes the other three mental aggregates—feeling,
perception,andvolitionalformations—aswellastypesofsubtlematerialform
not implicated in experience through the physical senses. Whether this
interpretationconformstothemeaningintendedintheoldestBuddhisttextsis
anopenquestion.
Text IX,4(2)(a) testifies that for Early Buddhism, liberation requires direct
knowledgeandfullunderstandingoftheinternalandexternalsensebasesandall
the phenomena that arise from them. This seems to establish an apparent
correspondence between Buddhism and empirical science, but the type of
knowledge sought by the two disciplines differs. Whereas the scientist seeks
impersonal, “objective” information, the Buddhist practitioner seeks direct
insightintothenatureofthesephenomenaascomponentsoflivedexperience.
TheNikāyassuggestaninterestingdifferencebetweenthetreatmentgivento
theaggregatesandthesensebases.Bothserveasthesoilwhereclingingtakes
rootandgrows,butwhiletheaggregatesareprimarilythesoilforviewsabouta
self,thesensebasesareprimarilythesoilforcraving.Anecessarystepinthe
conquest of craving is therefore restraint of the senses. Monks and nuns in
particular must be vigilant in their encounters with desirable and undesirable
senseobjects.Whenoneisnegligent,experiencethroughthesensesinvariably
becomes a trigger for craving: lust for pleasant objects, aversion toward
disagreeable objects (and a craving for pleasant escape routes), and a dull
attachmenttoneutralobjects.
Inoneofhisearliestdiscoursespopularlyknownas“TheFireSermon”—Text
IX,4(2)(b)—theBuddhadeclaredthat“allisburning.”The“all”isjustthesix
senses, their objects, the types of consciousness arisen from them, and the
related contacts and feelings. The way to liberation is to see that this “all” is
burning with the fires of defilements and suffering. The Saḷāyatanasaṃyutta
repeatedlystatesthattodispelignoranceandgeneratetrueknowledge,wemust
contemplate all the sense bases and the feelings that arise through them as
impermanent,suffering,andnonself.This,accordingtoTextIX,4(2)(c),isthe
directway to the attainment of Nibbāna.An alternative route, commended by
TextIX,4(2)(d),istoseethatthesixsensesareempty—emptyofaselforof
anythingbelongingtoaself.Sinceconsciousnessarisesviathesixsensebases,
ittooisdevoidofself—TextIX,4(2)(e).
IX,4(3) The Elements. The elements are the subject of the Dhātusaṃyutta
(Saṃyutta Nikāya, chapter 14). The word “elements” (dhātu) is applied to
severalquitedisparategroupsofphenomena,andthusthesuttasinthischapter
fallintoseparateclusterswithlittleincommonbuttheirconcernwithentities
called elements. The most important groups consist of eighteen, four, and six
elements.
The eighteen elements are an elaboration of the twelve sense bases. They
consistofthesixsensefaculties,thesixsenseobjects,andthesixtypesofsense
consciousness. Since six types of consciousness have been extracted from the
mindbase,themindelementthatremainsmustbeasimplertypeofcognitive
event. The Nikāyas do not specify its precise function. The Abhidhamma
identifiesitwithatypeofconsciousnessthatfulfillsmorerudimentaryrolesin
the process of cognition than the more discriminative mind-consciousness
element. IX,4(3)(a) contains a simple enumeration of the eighteen elements.
Contemplation of these elements helps to dispel the notion that an abiding
subjectunderliesthechangingcontentsofexperience.Itshowshowexperience
consistsofdifferenttypesofconsciousness,eachofwhichisconditioned,arisen
independenceonitsownspecificsensefacultyandobject.Thustoascertainthe
composite,diversified,conditioned natureof experiencedispelsthe illusionof
unityandsoliditythatordinarilyobscurescorrectcognition.
The four elements are earth, water, heat, and air. These represent four
“behavioralmodes”ofmatter:solidity,fluidity,energy,anddistension.Thefour
areinseparablyunitedinanyunitofmatter,fromthesmallesttothelargestand
most complex. The elements are not merely properties of the external world,
however, but also of one’s own body. Thus one must contemplate them in
relationtoone’sbody,astheSatipaṭṭhānaSuttateaches(seeTextVIII,8§12).
ThethreesuttascombinedinTextIX,4(3)(b)showthattheseelementscanbe
viewed: as impermanent and conditioned; from the triple standpoint of
gratification,danger,andescape;andbywayofthefour-truthpattern.
Thesixelementsincludethefourphysicalelements,thespaceelement,and
the element of consciousness. Text IX,4(3)(c), a long excerpt from MN 140,
explainsindetailhowtocontemplatethesixelementsinrelationtothephysical
body,theexternalworld,andconsciousexperience.
IX,4(4)DependentOrigination.Dependent origination(paṭiccasamuppāda)
is so central to the Buddha’s teaching that the Buddha said: “One who sees
dependent origination sees the Dhamma, and one who sees the Dhamma sees
dependentorigination”(MN28;I190–91).Theulitmatepurposeoftheteaching
on dependent origination is to reveal the conditions that sustain the round of
rebirthsandtherebytoshowwhatmustbedonetogainreleasefromtheround.
Towindeliveranceisamatterofunravelingthecausalpatternthatunderliesour
bondage,andthisprocessbeginswithunderstandingthecausalpatternitself.It
isdependentoriginationthatdefinesthiscausalpattern.
AnentirechapteroftheSaṃyuttaNikāya,theNidānasaṃyutta(chapter12),is
devoted to dependent origination. The doctrine is usually expounded as a
sequenceoftwelvefactorsjoinedintoachainofelevenpropositions;seeText
IX,4(4)(a).ABuddhadiscoversthischainofconditions;afterhisenlightenment,
hismissionistoexplainittotheworld.TextIX,4(4)(b)declaresthesequenceof
conditionstobeafixedprinciple,astablelaw,thenatureofthings.Theseriesis
expounded in two ways: by way of origination (called anuloma or forward
order),andbywayofcessation(calledpaṭilomaorreverseorder). Sometimes
thepresentationproceedsfromthefirstfactortothelast;sometimesitbeginsat
theendandtracesthechainofconditionsbacktothefirst.Othersuttaspickup
the chain somewhere in the middle and work either backward to the end or
forwardtothefront.
TheNikāyasthemselvesdonotgiveanysystematicexplanationofdependent
originationin the wayone might expecta college textbookto do. Thus, for a
clear explanation, we must rely on the commentaries and expository treatises
that have come down from the Early Buddhist schools. Despite minor
differences in details, these concur on the general meaning of this ancient
formula, which might be briefly summarized as follows: Because of (1)
ignorance(avijjā),lackofdirectknowledgeoftheFourNobleTruths,weengage
inwholesomeandunwholesomeactivitiesofbody,speech,andmind;theseare
(2) volitional formations (saṅkhārā), in other words, kamma. Volitional
formationssustainconsciousnessfromonelifetothenextanddeterminewhere
it re-arises; in this way volitional formations condition (3) consciousness
(viññāṇa).Alongwithconsciousness,beginningfromthemomentofconception,
comes(4)“name-and-form”(nāmarūpa),thesentientorganismwithitsphysical
form (rūpa) and its sensitive and cognitive capacities (nāma). The sentient
organism is equipped with (5) six sense bases (saḷāyatana), the five physical
sensefaculties and the mind as organof cognition. The sense bases allow(6)
contact (phassa) to occur between consciousness and its objects, and contact
conditions(7)feeling(vedanā).Calledintoplaybyfeeling,(8)craving(taṇhā)
arises,andwhencravingintensifiesitgivesriseto(9)clinging(upādāna),tight
attachmenttotheobjectsofdesirethroughsensualityandwrongviews.Impelled
byourattachments,weagainengageinvolitionalactionspregnantwith(10)a
newexistence(bhava).Atdeaththispotentialfornewexistenceisactualizedin
a new life beginning with (11) birth (jāti) and ending in (12) aging-and-death
(jarāmaraṇa).
4
From the above, we can see that the commentarial interpretation treats the
twelve factors as spread out over a span of three lives, with ignorance and
volitional formations pertaining to the past, birth and aging-and-death to the
future, and the intermediate factors to the present. The segment from
consciousness through feeling is the resultant phase of the present, the phase
resulting from past ignorance and kamma; the segment from craving through
existence is the karmically creative phase of the present, leading to renewed
existence in the future. But existence is distinguished into two phases: one,
calledkamma-existence(kammabhava),constitutestheactivesideofexistence
and belongs to the causal phase of the present life; the other, called rebirth-
existence(upapattibhava),constitutesthepassivesideofexistenceandbelongs
totheresultantphaseofthefuturelife.Thetwelvefactorsarealsodistributed
intothree “rounds”: the round of defilements (kilesavaṭṭa)includesignorance,
craving, and clinging; the round of action (kammavaṭṭa) includes volitional
formationsandkamma-existence;andalltheotherfactorsbelongtotheroundof
results(vipākavaṭṭa).Defilementsgiverisetodefiledactions,actionsbringforth
results,andresultsserveasthesoilformoredefilements.Inthiswaytheround
ofrebirthsrevolveswithoutdiscerniblebeginning.
Thismethodofdividingupthefactorsshouldnotbemisconstruedtomean
thatthepast,present,andfuturefactorsaremutuallyexclusive.Thedistribution
intothreelivesisonlyanexpositorydevicewhich,forthesakeofconcision,has
toresorttosomedegreeofabstraction.AsmanysuttasintheNidānasaṃyutta
show, groups of factors separated in the formula are inevitably interwoven in
their dynamic operation. Whenever there is ignorance, craving and clinging
invariablyaccompanyit;andwheneverthereiscravingandclinging,ignorance
stands behind them. The formula demonstrates how rebirth can take place
without the presence of a substantial self that maintains its identity as it
transmigrates from one life to the next. Without a self to hold the sequence
together,whatconnectsonelifetothenextisnothingotherthantheprincipleof
conditionality.Conditionsinoneexistenceinitiatethearisingoftheconditioned
phenomena in the next existence; these serve as conditions for still other
phenomena,whichconditionstillotherphenomena,andsoonindefinitelyinto
thefuture.Thewholeprocessendsonlywhenitsunderlyingsprings—ignorance,
craving,andclinging—areextirpatedbywisdom.
Dependent origination is not a mere theory but a teaching that should be
directlyknownbypersonalexperience,apointclearlymadebyTextIX,4(4)(c).
This sutta instructs the disciple to understand each factor by way of the four-
truthpattern:oneshouldunderstandthefactoritself,itsorigin,itscessation,and
theway to its cessation. Firstone understands this pattern inrelation toone’s
personalexperience.Then,onthisbasis,oneinfersthatallthosewhocorrectly
understoodthese things in thepast understood them inexactly the same way;
thenthatallthosewhowillcorrectlyunderstandthesethingsinthefuturewill
understand them in exactly the same way. In this way, dependent origination
acquiresatimelessanduniversalsignificance.
Several suttas hold up dependent origination as a “teaching by the middle”
(majjhenatathāgatodhammaṃdeseti).Itisa“teachingbythemiddle”because
it transcends two extreme views that polarize philosophical reflection on the
human condition. One extreme, the metaphysical thesis of eternalism
(sassatavāda), asserts that the core of human identity is an indestructible and
eternal self, whether individual or universal. It also asserts that the world is
createdandmaintainedbyapermanententity,aGodorsomeothermetaphysical
reality.Theotherextreme,annihilationism(ucchedavāda),holdsthatatdeaththe
personisutterlyannihilated.Thereisnospiritualdimensiontohumanexistence
andthusnopersonalsurvivalofanysort.FortheBuddha,bothextremespose
insuperable problems. Eternalism encourages an obstinate clinging to the five
aggregates, which are really impermanent and devoid of a substantial self;
annihilationismthreatenstoundermineethicsandtomakesufferingtheproduct
ofchance.
Dependentoriginationoffersaradicallydifferentperspectivethattranscends
thetwoextremes.Itshowsthatindividualexistenceisconstitutedbyacurrentof
conditioned phenomena devoid of a metaphysical self yet continuing on from
birthto birth as long as thecauses that sustain it remaineffective.Dependent
originationtherebyoffersacogentexplanationoftheproblemofsufferingthat
ontheonehandavoidsthephilosophicaldilemmasposedbythehypothesisofa
permanentself,andontheotheravoidsthedangersofethicalanarchytowhich
annihilationismeventuallyleads.Aslongasignoranceandcravingremain,the
processofrebirthcontinues;kammayieldsitspleasantandpainfulfruit,andthe
greatmassofsufferingaccumulates.Whenignoranceandcravingaredestroyed,
theinnermechanismofkarmiccausationisdeactivated,andonereachestheend
of suffering in saṃsāra. Perhaps the most elegant exposition of dependent
originationasthe“middleteaching”isthefamousKaccānagottaSutta,included
hereasTextIX,4(4)(d).
Thoughthetwelve-factorformulaisthemostfamiliarversionofthedoctrine
of dependent origination, the Nidānasaṃyutta introduces a number of little-
knownvariants that helpto illuminatethe standard version.One such variant,
Text IX,4(4)(e), speaks about the conditions for “the continuance of
consciousness”(viññāṇassaṭhitiyā),inotherwords,how consciousnesspasses
on to a new existence. The causes are said to be the underlying tendencies,
namely,ignoranceandcraving,and“whatoneintendsandplans,”namely,the
volitionalformations.Onceconsciousnessbecomesestablished,theproduction
ofanewexistencebegins;thuswehereproceeddirectlyfromconsciousness(the
usualthirdfactor)toexistence(theusualtenthfactor).TextIX,4(4)(f)saysthat
fromthesixinternalandexternalsensebases(theformerbeingtheusualfifth
factor), consciousness (the third factor) arises, followed by contact, feeling,
craving,andalltherest.Thesevariantsmakeitplainthatthesequenceoffactors
shouldnotberegardedasalinearcausalprocessinwhicheachprecedingfactor
givesrisetoitssuccessorthroughthesimpleexerciseofefficientcausality.Far
from being linear, the relationship among the factors is always complex,
involvingseveralinterwovenstrandsofconditionality.
IX,4(5)TheFourNobleTruths.Aswehaveseeninboththe“gradualpathto
liberation”andinthe“contemplationofphenomena”sectionoftheDiscourseon
the Establishment of Mindfulness, the path to liberation culminates in the
realizationoftheFourNobleTruths:seeTextVII,4§25andTextVIII,8§44.
These were the truths that the Buddha discovered on the night of his
enlightenment and enunciated in his first discourse: see Text II,3(2) §42 and
Text II,5. The First Discourse is tucked away almost inconspicuously in the
Saccasaṃyutta(SaṃyuttaNikāya,chapter56),theConnectedDiscoursesonthe
Truths,achapterrepletewithmanyotherpithyandthought-provokingsuttas.
To highlight the wide-ranging significance of the Four Noble Truths, the
Saccasaṃyutta casts them against a universal background. According toText
IX,4(5)(a),notonlytheBuddhaGotama,butalltheBuddhaspast,present,and
futureawakentothesesamefourtruths.Thesefourtruths,saysTextIX,4(5)(b),
aretruthsbecausetheyare“actual,unerring,nototherwise.”AccordingtoText
IX,4(5)(c),thethingstheBuddhateachesareasfewasahandfulofleavesinthe
forest, and what he teaches are just these Four Noble Truths, taught precisely
becausetheyleadtoenlightenmentandNibbāna.
Sentient beings roam and wander in saṃsāra because they have not
understood and penetrated the Four Noble Truths—Text IX,4(5)(d). As the
chainofdependentoriginationshows,whatliesatthebaseofthecausalgenesis
of suffering is ignorance (avijjā), and ignorance is unawareness of the Four
Noble Truths. Thus those who fail to understand the four truths generate
volitional formations and fall down the precipice of birth, aging, and death
TextIX,4(5)(e).
Theantidotetoignoranceisknowledge(vijjā),whichaccordinglyisdefined
asknowledgeoftheFourNobleTruths.ThefirstpenetrationoftheFourNoble
Truthsoccurswiththeattainmentofstream-entry,calledthebreakthroughtothe
Dhamma(dhammābhisamaya).Tomakethisbreakthroughisbynomeanseasy,
butwithoutdoingsoitisimpossibletoputanendtosuffering—TextIX,4(5)(f).
HencetheBuddhaagainandagainurgeshisdisciplesto“makeanextraordinary
effort”toachievethebreakthroughtothetruths.
Once the disciple makes the breakthrough and sees the Four Noble Truths,
moreworkstillliesahead,foreachtruthimposesataskthatmustbefulfilledin
ordertowinthefinalfruit.Thetruthofsuffering,whichultimatelyconsistsof
the five aggregates, must be fully understood (pariññeyya). The truth of its
origin, craving, must be abandoned (pahātabba). The truth of cessation,
Nibbāna,mustberealized(sacchikātabba).Andthetruthoftheway,theNoble
EightfoldPath,mustbedeveloped(bhāvetabba).Developingthepathbringsto
completionallfourtasks,atwhichpointonereachesthedestructionofthetaints.
ThisprocessbeginswithpenetrationofthesameFourNobleTruths,and thus
TextIX,4(5)(g)saysthatthedestructionofthetaintsisforthosewhoknowand
seetheFourNobleTruths.
IX,5 The Goal of Wisdom. The Four Noble Truths not only serve as the
objectivedomainofwisdombutalsodefineitspurpose,whichisenshrinedin
the third noble truth, the cessation of suffering. The cessation of suffering is
Nibbāna,andthusthegoalofwisdom,theendtowardwhichthecultivationof
wisdom moves, is the attainment of Nibbāna. But what exactly is meant by
Nibbāna?ThesuttasexplainNibbānainanumberofways.Some,suchasText
IX,5(1),defineNibbānasimplyasthedestructionoflust,hatred,anddelusion.
Others, such as the series comprised in Text IX,5(2), employ metaphors and
imagestoconveyamoreconcreteideaoftheultimategoal.Nibbānaisstillthe
destructionoflust,hatred,anddelusion,butassuchitis,amongotherthings,
peaceful,deathless,sublime,wonderful,andamazing.Suchdescriptionsindicate
that Nibbāna is a state of supreme happiness, peace, and freedom to be
experiencedinthispresentlife.
A few suttas, most notably a pair in the Udāna—included here asTexts
IX,5(3) and IX,5(4)—suggest that Nibbāna is not simply the destruction of
defilementsandanexaltedfeelingofpsychologicalwell-being.Theyspeakof
Nibbāna almost as if it were a transcendent state or dimension of being.Text
IX,5(3)referstoNibbānaasa“base”(āyatana)beyondtheworldofcommon
experience where none of the physical elements or even the subtle formless
dimensionsofexperiencearepresent;itisastatecompletelyquiescent,without
arising, perishing, or change. Text IX,5(4) calls it the state that is “unborn,
unmade, unbecome, [and] unconditioned” (ajātaṃ, akataṃ, abhūtaṃ,
asaṅkhataṃ),theexistenceofwhichmakespossibledeliverancefromallthatis
born,made,come-to-be,andconditioned.
How are we to correlate these two perspectives on Nibbāna found in the
Nikāyas, one treating it as an experiential state of inward purity and sublime
bliss, the other as an unconditioned state transcending the empirical world?
Commentators, both Buddhists and outsiders, have tried to connect these two
aspectsofNibbānaindifferentways.Theirinterpretationsgenerallyreflectthe
proclivityoftheinterpreterasmuchastheydothetextsthemselves.Theway
thatseemsmostfaithfultobothaspectsofNibbānadelineatedinthetextsisto
regardtheattainmentofNibbānaasastateoffreedomandhappinessattainedby
realizing,withprofoundwisdom, theunconditionedand transcendent element,
the state that is intrinsically tranquil and forever beyond suffering. The
penetrationofthiselementbringsthedestructionofdefilements,culminatingin
complete purification of mind. Such purification is accompanied by the
experienceofperfectpeaceandhappinessinthispresentlife.Withthebreakup
of the body at physical death, it brings irreversible release from the
beginninglessroundofrebirths.
The suttas speak of two “elements of Nibbāna,” the Nibbāna element with
residue remaining (sa-upādisesa-nibbānadhātu) and the Nibbāna element
withoutresidueremaining(anupādisesa-nibbānadhātu).TextIX,5(5)explains
theNibbānaelementwithresidueremainingtobethedestructionoflust,hatred,
anddelusionattainedbyanarahantwhilestillalive.The“residue”thatremains
is the composite of the five aggregates that was brought into being by the
ignoranceandcravingofthepastlifeandthatmustcontinueonuntiltheendof
thelifespan.AstotheNibbānaelementwithoutresidueremaining,thesametext
saysonlythatwhenthearahantpassesaway,allthatisfelt,notbeingdelighted
in, will become cool right here. Since there is no more clinging to the five
aggregates, and no more craving for fresh experience through a new set of
aggregates, the occurrence of the aggregates comes to an end and cannot
continue. The process of the five aggregates is “extinguished” (the literal
meaningofNibbāna).
5
The Buddha says nothing at all, however, in terms either of existence or
nonexistence, about the condition of the arahant after death. It might seem
logical to suppose that since the five aggregates that constitute experience
completelycease with the attainment of the Nibbāna element without residue,
this element must itself be a state of complete nonexistence, a state of
nothingness. Yet no text in the Nikāyas ever states this. To the contrary, the
NikāyasconsistentlyrefertoNibbānabytermsthatrefertoactualities.Itisan
element(dhātu),abase(āyatana),areality(dhamma),astate(pada),andsoon.
However, though so designated, it is qualified in ways that indicate this state
ultimatelyliesbeyondallfamiliarcategoriesandconcepts.
In Text IX,5(6), the wanderer Vacchagotta asks the Buddha whether the
Tathāgata—here signifying one who has attained the supreme goal—is reborn
(upapajjati)ornotafterdeath.TheBuddharefusestoconcedeanyofthefour
alternatives.TosaythattheTathāgataisreborn,isnotreborn,bothisandisnot
reborn,neitherisnorisnotreborn—noneoftheseisacceptable,forallaccept
thetermTathāgataasindicativeofarealbeing,whilefromaninternalpointof
viewaTathāgatahasgivenupallclingingtonotionsofarealbeing.TheBuddha
illustratesthispointwiththesimileofanextinguishedfire.Justasafirethathas
beenextinguishedcannotbesaidtohavegoneanywherebutmustsimplybesaid
tohave“goneout,”sowiththebreakupofthebodytheTathāgatadoesnotgo
anywhere but has simply “gone out.” The past participle nibbuta, used to
describeafirethathasbeenextinguished,isrelatedtothenounnibbāna,which
literallymeans“extinguishing.”
6
Yet,ifthissimilesuggestsaBuddhistversionofthe“annihilationist”viewof
the arahant’s fate after his demise, this impression would rest on a
misunderstanding,onawrongperceptionofthearahantasa“self”or“person”
thatisannihilated.OurprobleminunderstandingthestateoftheTathāgataafter
deathiscompoundedbyourdifficultyinunderstandingthestateoftheTathāgata
evenwhilealive.Thesimileofthegreatoceanunderscoresthisdifficulty.Since
the Tathāgata no longer identifies with the five aggregates that constitute
individualidentity,hecannotbereckonedintermsofthem,whetherindividually
or collectively. Freed from reckoning in terms of the five aggregates, the
Tathāgata transcends our understanding. Like the great ocean, he is “deep,
immeasurable,[and]hardtofathom.”
7
IX.SHININGTHELIGHTOFWISDOM
1.IMAGESOFWISDOM
(1)WisdomasaLight
“Thereare,Omonks,thesefourlights.Whatfour?Thelightofthemoon,the
lightofthesun,thelightoffire,andthelightofwisdom.Ofthesefourlights,
thelightofwisdomissupreme.”
(AN4:143;II139)
(2)WisdomasaKnife
11.“Sisters,supposeaskilledbutcherorhisapprenticeweretokillacowand
carve it up with a sharp butchers knife. Without damaging the inner mass of
fleshandwithoutdamagingtheouterhide,hewouldcut,sever,andcarveaway
the inner tendons, sinews, and ligaments withthe sharp butchers knife. Then
havingcut,severed,andcarvedallthisaway,hewouldremovetheouterhide
andcoverthecowagainwiththatsamehide.Wouldhebespeakingrightlyifhe
weretosay:‘Thiscowisjoinedtothishidejustasitwasbefore’?”
“No, venerable sir. Why is that? Because if that skilled butcher or his
apprenticewereto killacow …and cut,sever,and carveall thataway,even
though he covers the cow again with that same hide and says: ‘This cow is
joinedtothishidejustasitwasbefore,’thatcowwouldstillbedisjoinedfrom
thathide.”
12.“Sisters,Ihavegiventhissimileinordertoconveyameaning.Thisisthe
meaning:‘Theinnermassofflesh’isatermforthesixinternalbases.‘Theouter
hide’ is a term for the six external bases. ‘The inner tendons, sinews, and
ligaments’isatermfordelightandlust.‘Thesharpbutchersknife’isatermfor
noblewisdom—thenoblewisdomthatcuts,severs,andcarvesawaytheinner
defilements,fetters,andbonds.”
(fromMN146:NandakovādaSutta;III274–75)
2.THECONDITIONSFORWISDOM
“Thereare,Omonks,theseeightcausesandconditionsforobtainingthewisdom
fundamentaltothespirituallifewhenithasnotbeenobtainedandforbringing
aboutthe increase, maturation, and fulfillmentby development of the wisdom
thathasalreadybeenobtained.Whateight?
(1)“Here,amonklivesindependenceontheTeacheroronacertainfellow
monkinthepositionofateacher,andhehassetuptowardhimakeensenseof
shameandmoraldreadandregardshimwithaffectionandrespect.Thisisthe
firstcauseandconditionforobtainingthewisdomfundamentaltothespiritual
life.…
(2)“Asheislivingindependenceonsuchteachers,heapproachesthemfrom
timetotimeandinquires:‘Howisthis,venerablesir?Whatisthemeaningof
this?’Those venerable onesthendisclose tohimwhat hasnotbeen disclosed,
clearupwhatisobscure,anddispelhisperplexityaboutmanyperplexingpoints.
Thisisthesecondcauseandconditionforobtainingthewisdomfundamentalto
thespirituallife.…
(3)“HavinglearnedtheDhamma,hedwellswithdrawnbywayoftwokinds
of withdrawal: withdrawal of body and withdrawal of mind. This is the third
causeandconditionforobtainingthewisdomfundamentaltothespirituallife.…
(4)“Heisvirtuous,restrainedbytherestraintofthePātimokkha,
8
perfectin
conductandresort,seeingdangerintheslightestfaults.Havingundertakenthe
trainingrules,hetrainshimselfinthem.Thisisthefourthcauseandcondition
forobtainingthewisdomfundamentaltothespirituallife.…
(5)“Hehaslearnedmuch,rememberswhathehaslearned,andconsolidates
whathehaslearned.Suchteachingsthataregoodinthebeginning,goodinthe
middle,and good in the end,with the rightmeaning andphrasing, and which
affirm a spiritual life that is perfectly complete and pure—such teachings as
thesehehaslearnedmuchof,memorized,recitedverbally,investigatedwiththe
mind, and penetrated well by view. This is the fifth cause and condition for
obtainingthewisdomfundamentaltothespirituallife.…
(6) “He is energetic; he lives with energy set upon the abandoning of
everything unwholesome and the acquiring of everything wholesome; he is
steadfastandstronginhiseffort,notshirkinghistaskinregardtowholesome
qualities. This is the sixth cause and condition for obtaining the wisdom
fundamentaltothespirituallife.…
(7)“WhenheisinthemidstoftheSaṅgha,hedoesnotengageinrambling
andpointlesstalk.EitherhehimselfspeaksontheDhammaorherequestsothers
to do so, or he does not shun noble silence. This is the seventh cause and
conditionforobtainingthewisdomfundamentaltothespirituallife.…
(8) “He dwells contemplating rise and fall in the five aggregates subject to
clinging thus: ‘Such is form, such its arising, such its passing away; such is
feeling ... such is perception … such are volitional formations … such is
consciousness,suchitsarising,suchitspassingaway.’Thisistheeighthcause
andconditionforobtainingthewisdomfundamentaltothespirituallife.…“For
theseeightreasonshisfellowmonksesteemhimasonewhotrulyknowsand
sees,andthesequalitiesleadtoaffection,esteem,concord,andunity.
“These,monks,aretheeightcausesandconditionsforobtainingthewisdom
fundamentaltothespirituallifewhenithasnotbeenobtainedandforbringing
aboutthe increase, maturation, and fulfillmentby development of the wisdom
thathasalreadybeenobtained.”
(AN8:2,abridged;IV151–55)
3.ADISCOURSEONRIGHTVIEW
1.ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewaslivingatSāvatthīin
Jeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’sPark.TheretheVenerableSāriputtaaddressedthe
monksthus:“Friends,monks.”—“Friend,”theyreplied.TheVenerableSāriputta
saidthis:
2.“‘Oneofrightview,oneofrightview,’issaid,friends.Inwhatwayisa
noble disciple one of right view, whose view is straight, who has confirmed
confidenceintheDhammaandhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma?”
9
“Indeed,friend,we would comefromfar awaytolearn fromtheVenerable
Sāriputta the meaning of this statement. It would be good if the Venerable
Sāriputta would explain the meaning of this statement. Having heard it from
him,themonkswillrememberit.”
“Then,friends,listenandattendcloselytowhatIshallsay.”
“Yes,friend,”themonksreplied.TheVenerableSāriputtasaidthis:
[thewholesomeandtheunwholesome]
3.“When,friends,anoblediscipleunderstandstheunwholesomeandtherootof
theunwholesome,thewholesomeandtherootofthewholesome,inthatwayhe
isoneofrightview,whoseviewisstraight,whohasconfirmedconfidenceinthe
DhammaandhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.
4. “And what, friends, is the unwholesome, what is the root of the
unwholesome,whatisthewholesome,whatistherootofthewholesome?The
destructionof life is unwholesome; taking what is not given is unwholesome;
sexual misconduct is unwholesome; false speech is unwholesome; malicious
speech is unwholesome; harsh speech is unwholesome; idle chatter is
unwholesome; covetousness is unwholesome; ill will is unwholesome; wrong
viewisunwholesome.Thisiscalledtheunwholesome.
10
5. “And what is the root of the unwholesome? Greed is a root of the
unwholesome; hatred is a root of the unwholesome; delusion is a root of the
unwholesome.Thisiscalledtherootoftheunwholesome.
6. “And what is the wholesome? Abstention from destruction of life is
wholesome;abstentionfromtakingwhatisnotgiveniswholesome;abstention
from sexual misconduct is wholesome; abstention from false speech is
wholesome; abstention from malicious speech is wholesome; abstention from
harsh speech is wholesome; abstention from idle chatter is wholesome;
uncovetousness is wholesome; non–ill will is wholesome; right view is
wholesome.Thisiscalledthewholesome.
7. “And what is the root of the wholesome? Nongreed is a root of the
wholesome;nonhatredisarootofthewholesome;nondelusionisarootofthe
wholesome.Thisiscalledtherootofthewholesome.
8.“Whenanobledisciplehasthusunderstoodtheunwholesomeandtheroot
oftheunwholesome,thewholesomeandtherootofthewholesome,
11
heentirely
abandonstheunderlyingtendencytolust,heabolishestheunderlyingtendency
toaversion,heextirpatestheunderlyingtendencytotheviewandconceit‘Iam,’
and by abandoning ignorance and arousing true knowledge he here and now
makesanendofsuffering.
12
Inthatwaytooanoblediscipleisoneofrightview,
whoseviewisstraight,whohasconfirmedconfidenceintheDhammaandhas
arrivedatthistrueDhamma.”
[nutriment]
9. Saying, “Good, friend,” the monks delighted and rejoiced in the Venerable
Sāriputta’swords.Thentheyaskedhimafurtherquestion:“But,friend,might
therebeanotherwayinwhichanoblediscipleisoneofrightview...andhas
arrivedatthistrueDhamma?”—“Theremightbe,friends.
10. “When, friends, a noble disciple understands nutriment, the origin of
nutriment, the cessation of nutriment, and the way leading to the cessation of
nutriment, in that way he is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma.
11. “And what is nutriment, what is the origin of nutriment, what is the
cessationof nutriment, what is the way leading to the cessation of nutriment?
Therearefourkindsofnutrimentforthesustenanceofbeingsthatalreadyhave
cometobeandforthesupportofthoseabouttocometobe.Whatfour?They
are:physicalfood as nutriment,grossor subtle;contactas the second;mental
volition as the third; and consciousness as the fourth.
13
With the arising of
cravingthereisthearisingofnutriment.Withthecessationofcravingthereis
thecessationofnutriment.Thewayleadingtothecessationofnutrimentisjust
thisNobleEightfoldPath;thatis,rightview,rightintention,rightspeech,right
action,rightlivelihood,righteffort,rightmindfulness,andrightconcentration.
12. “When a noble disciple has thus understood nutriment, the origin of
nutriment, the cessation of nutriment, and the way leading to the cessation of
nutriment,heentirelyabandonstheunderlyingtendencytolust...hehereand
nowmakesanendofsuffering.Inthatwaytooanoblediscipleisoneofright
view,whoseviewisstraight,whohasconfirmedconfidenceintheDhammaand
hasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.”
[theFourNobleTruths]
13.Saying,“Good,friend,”themonksdelightedandrejoicedintheVenerable
Sāriputta’swords.Thentheyaskedhimafurtherquestion:“But,friend,might
therebeanotherwayinwhichanoblediscipleisoneofrightview...andhas
arrivedatthistrueDhamma?”—“Theremightbe,friends.
14. “When, friends, a noble disciple understands suffering, the origin of
suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way leading to the cessation of
suffering, in that way he is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma.
15. “And what is suffering, what is the origin of suffering, what is the
cessation of suffering, what is the way leading to the cessation of suffering?
Birth is suffering; aging is suffering; illness is suffering; death is suffering;
sorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespairaresuffering;nottogetwhat
one wants is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates subject to clinging are
suffering.Thisiscalledsuffering.
16. “And what is the origin of suffering? It is this craving that leads to
renewed existence, accompanied by delight and lust, seeking delight here and
there; that is, craving for sensual pleasures, craving for existence, craving for
extermination.Thisiscalledtheoriginofsuffering.
17. “And what is the cessation of suffering? It is the remainderless fading
awayandcessationofthatsamecraving,thegivingupandrelinquishingofit,
freedomfromit,nonattachment.
18.“Andwhatisthewayleadingtothecessationofsuffering?Itisjustthis
NobleEightfoldPath;thatis,rightview...rightconcentration.Thisiscalledthe
wayleadingtothecessationofsuffering.
19. “When a noble disciple has thus understood suffering, the origin of
suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the way leading to the cessation of
suffering…hehereandnowmakesanendofsuffering.Inthatwaytooanoble
discipleisoneofrightview...andhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.”
[aginganddeath]
20.Saying,“Good,friend,”themonksdelightedandrejoicedintheVenerable
Sāriputta’swords.Thentheyaskedhimafurtherquestion:“But,friend,might
therebeanotherwayinwhichanoblediscipleisoneofrightview...andhas
arrivedatthistrueDhamma?”—“Theremightbe,friends.
21.“When,friends,anoblediscipleunderstandsaginganddeath,theoriginof
agingand death, thecessation of agingand death, and theway leading tothe
cessation of aging and death, in that way he is one of right view ... and has
arrivedatthistrueDhamma.
14
22.“Andwhatisaginganddeath,whatistheoriginofaginganddeath,what
isthecessationofaginganddeath,whatisthewayleadingtothecessationof
aginganddeath?Theagingofbeingsinthevariousordersofbeings,theirold
age, brokenness of teeth, grayness of hair, wrinkling of skin, decline of life,
weakness of faculties—this is called aging. The passing of beings out of the
various orders of beings, their passing away, breakup, disappearance, dying,
completionoftime,thebreakupoftheaggregates,layingdownofthebody—
this is called death. So this aging and this death are what is called aging and
death.Withthearisingofbirththereisthearisingofaginganddeath.Withthe
cessationofbirththereisthecessationofaginganddeath.Thewayleadingto
thecessationofaginganddeathisjustthisNobleEightfoldPath;thatis,right
view...rightconcentration.
23.“Whenanobledisciplehasthusunderstoodaginganddeath,theoriginof
agingand death, thecessation of agingand death, and theway leading tothe
cessationofaginganddeath...hehereandnowmakesanendofsuffering.In
thatwaytooanoblediscipleisoneofrightview...andhasarrivedatthistrue
Dhamma.”
[birth]
24.Saying,“Good,friend,”themonksdelightedandrejoicedintheVenerable
Sāriputta’swords.Thentheyaskedhimafurtherquestion:“But,friend,might
therebeanotherwayinwhichanoblediscipleisoneofrightview...andhas
arrivedatthistrueDhamma?”—“Theremightbe,friends.
25.“When,friends,anoblediscipleunderstandsbirth,theoriginofbirth,the
cessationofbirth,andthewayleadingtothecessationofbirth,inthatwayheis
oneofrightview...andhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.
26. “And what is birth, what is the origin of birth, what is the cessation of
birth,whatisthewayleadingtothecessationofbirth?Thebirthofbeingsinthe
various orders of beings, their coming to birth, precipitation [in a womb],
generation,manifestationoftheaggregates,obtainingthebasesforcontact—this
iscalledbirth.Withthearisingofexistencethereisthearisingofbirth.Withthe
cessation of existence there is the cessation of birth. The way leading to the
cessationof birth is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right
concentration.
27.“Whenanobledisciplehasthusunderstoodbirth,theoriginofbirth,the
cessationofbirth,andthewayleadingtothecessationofbirth...hehereand
nowmakesanendofsuffering.Inthatwaytooanoblediscipleisoneofright
view…andhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.”
[existence]
28.Saying,“Good,friend,”themonksdelightedandrejoicedintheVenerable
Sāriputta’swords.Thentheyaskedhimafurtherquestion:“But,friend,might
therebeanotherwayinwhichanoblediscipleisoneofrightview...andhas
arrivedatthistrueDhamma?”—“Theremightbe,friends.
29. “When, friends, a noble disciple understands existence, the origin of
existence, the cessation of existence, and the way leading to the cessation of
existence, in that way he is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma.
30. “And what is existence, what is the origin of existence, what is the
cessation of existence, what is the way leading to the cessation of existence?
There are these three kinds of existence: sense-sphere existence, form-sphere
existence,andformless-sphereexistence.
15
Withthearisingofclingingthereis
thearisingofexistence.Withthecessationofclingingthereisthecessationof
existence. The way leading to the cessation of existence is just this Noble
EightfoldPath;thatis,rightview...rightconcentration.
31. “When a noble disciple has thus understood existence, the origin of
existence, the cessation of existence, and the way leading to the cessation of
existence…hehereandnowmakesanendofsuffering.Inthatwaytooanoble
discipleisoneofrightview...andhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.”
[clinging]
32.Saying,“Good,friend,”themonksdelightedandrejoicedintheVenerable
Sāriputta’swords.Thentheyaskedhimafurtherquestion:“But,friend,might
therebeanotherwayinwhichanoblediscipleisoneofrightview…andhas
arrivedatthistrueDhamma?”—“Theremightbe,friends.
33. “When, friends, a noble disciple understands clinging, the origin of
clinging, the cessation of clinging, and the way leading to the cessation of
clinging, in that way he is one of right view ... and has arrived at this true
Dhamma.
34.“Andwhatisclinging,whatistheoriginofclinging,whatisthecessation
ofclinging,whatisthewayleadingtothecessationofclinging?Therearethese
fourkindsofclinging:clingingtosensualpleasures,clingingtoviews,clinging
torulesandobservances,andclingingtoadoctrineofself.
16
Withthearisingof
cravingthereisthearisingofclinging.Withthecessationofcravingthereisthe
cessationof clinging.The way leadingto thecessation of clingingis justthis
NobleEightfoldPath;thatis,rightview...rightconcentration.
35. “When a noble disciple has thus understood clinging, the origin of
clinging, the cessation of clinging, and the way leading to the cessation of
clinging…hehereandnowmakesanendofsuffering.Inthatwaytooanoble
discipleisoneofrightview...andhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.”
[craving]
36.Saying,“Good,friend,”themonksdelightedandrejoicedintheVenerable
Sāriputta’swords.Thentheyaskedhimafurtherquestion:“But,friend,might
therebeanotherwayinwhichanoblediscipleisoneofrightview...andhas
arrivedatthistrueDhamma?”—“Theremightbe,friends.
37. “When, friends, a noble disciple understands craving, the origin of
craving,thecessationofcraving,andthewayleadingtothecessationofcraving,
inthatwayheisoneofrightview...andhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.
38.“Andwhatiscraving,whatistheoriginofcraving,whatisthecessation
ofcraving,whatisthewayleadingtothecessationofcraving?Therearethese
sixclassesofcraving:cravingforforms,cravingforsounds,cravingforodors,
cravingforflavors,cravingfortactileobjects,cravingformentalphenomena.
17
Withthearisingoffeelingthereisthearisingofcraving.Withthecessationof
feeling there is the cessation of craving. The way leading to the cessation of
craving is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right
concentration.
39.“Whenanobledisciplehasthusunderstoodcraving,theoriginofcraving,
thecessationofcraving,andthewayleadingtothecessationofcraving...he
hereandnowmakesanendofsuffering.Inthatwaytooanoblediscipleisone
ofrightview...andhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.”
[feeling]
40.Saying,“Good,friend,”themonksdelightedandrejoicedintheVenerable
Sāriputta’swords.Thentheyaskedhimafurtherquestion:“But,friend,might
therebeanotherwayinwhichanoblediscipleisoneofrightview...andhas
arrivedatthistrueDhamma?”—“Theremightbe,friends.
41.“When,friends,anoblediscipleunderstandsfeeling,theoriginoffeeling,
thecessationoffeeling,andthewayleadingtothecessationoffeeling,inthat
wayheisoneofrightview...andhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.
42.“Andwhatisfeeling,whatistheoriginoffeeling,whatisthecessationof
feeling,whatisthewayleadingtothecessationoffeeling?Therearethesesix
classes of feeling: feeling born of eye-contact, feeling born of ear-contact,
feeling born of nose-contact, feeling born of tongue-contact, feeling born of
body-contact,feelingbornofmind-contact.Withthearisingofcontactthereis
the arising of feeling. With the cessation of contact there is the cessation of
feeling.ThewayleadingtothecessationoffeelingisjustthisNobleEightfold
Path;thatis,rightview...rightconcentration.
43.“Whenanobledisciplehasthusunderstoodfeeling,theoriginoffeeling,
thecessationoffeeling,andthewayleadingtothecessationoffeeling...hehere
andnowmakesanendofsuffering.Inthatwaytooanoblediscipleisoneof
rightview...andhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.”
[contact]
44.Saying,“Good,friend,”themonksdelightedandrejoicedintheVenerable
Sāriputta’swords.Thentheyaskedhimafurtherquestion:“But,friend,might
therebeanotherwayinwhichanoblediscipleisoneofrightview...andhas
arrivedatthistrueDhamma?”—“Theremightbe,friends.
45.“When,friends,anoblediscipleunderstandscontact,theoriginofcontact,
thecessationofcontact,andthewayleadingtothecessationofcontact,inthat
wayheisoneofrightview...andhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.
46.“Andwhatiscontact,whatistheoriginofcontact,whatisthecessationof
contact,whatisthewayleadingtothecessationofcontact?Therearethesesix
classesofcontact:eye-contact,ear-contact,nose-contact,tongue-contact,body-
contact, mind-contact.
18
With the arising of the six sense bases there is the
arisingofcontact.Withthecessationofthesixsensebasesthereisthecessation
of contact. The way leading to the cessation of contact is just this Noble
EightfoldPath;thatis,rightview…rightconcentration.
47.“Whenanobledisciplehasthusunderstoodcontact,theoriginofcontact,
thecessationof contact, andtheway leadingtothe cessationofcontact... he
hereandnowmakesanendofsuffering.Inthatwaytooanoblediscipleisone
ofrightview…andhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.”
[thesixsensebases]
48.Saying,“Good,friend,”themonksdelightedandrejoicedintheVenerable
Sāriputta’swords.Thentheyaskedhimafurtherquestion:“But,friend,might
therebeanotherwayinwhichanoblediscipleisoneofrightview…andhas
arrivedatthistrueDhamma?”—“Theremightbe,friends.
49.“When,friends,anoblediscipleunderstandsthesixsensebases,theorigin
ofthesixsensebases,thecessationofthesixsensebases,andthewayleading
tothecessationofthesixsensebases,inthatwayheisoneofrightview…and
hasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.
50. “And what are the six sense bases, what is the origin of the six sense
bases,whatisthecessationofthesixsensebases,whatisthewayleadingtothe
cessationofthesixsensebases?Therearethesesixsensebases:theeye-base,
theear-base,thenose-base,thetongue-base,thebody-base,themind-base.With
thearisingofname-and-formthereisthearisingofthesixsensebases.Withthe
cessation of name-and-form there is the cessation of the six sense bases. The
wayleadingtothecessationofthesixsensebasesisjustthisNobleEightfold
Path;thatis,rightview…rightconcentration.
51.“Whenanobledisciplehasthusunderstoodthesixsensebases,theorigin
ofthesixsensebases,thecessationofthesixsensebases,andthewayleading
to the cessation of the six sense bases … he here and now makes an end of
suffering.Inthatwaytooanoblediscipleisoneofrightview…andhasarrived
atthistrueDhamma.”
[name-and-form]
52.Saying,“Good,friend,”themonksdelightedandrejoicedintheVenerable
Sāriputta’swords.Thentheyaskedhimafurtherquestion:“But,friend,might
therebeanotherwayinwhichanoblediscipleisoneofrightview…andhas
arrivedatthistrueDhamma?”—“Theremightbe,friends.
53.“When,friends,anoblediscipleunderstandsname-and-form,theoriginof
name-and-form, the cessation of name-and-form, and the way leading to the
cessation of name-and-form, in that way he is one of right view ... and has
arrivedatthistrueDhamma.
54.“Andwhatisname-and-form,whatistheoriginofname-and-form,what
isthecessationofname-and-form,whatisthewayleadingtothecessationof
name-and-form?Feeling,perception,volition,contact,andattention—theseare
calledname.Thefourgreatelementsandtheformderivedfromthefourgreat
elements—thesearecalledform.Sothisnameandthisformarewhatiscalled
name-and-form.
19
Withthearisingofconsciousnessthereisthearisingofname-
and-form. With the cessation of consciousness there isthe cessationof name-
and-form.Thewayleadingtothecessationofname-and-formisjustthisNoble
EightfoldPath;thatis,rightview...rightconcentration.
55.“Whenanobledisciplehasthusunderstoodname-and-form,theoriginof
name-and-form, the cessation of name-and-form, and the way leading to the
cessationofname-and-form…hehereandnowmakesanendofsuffering.In
thatwaytooanoblediscipleisoneofrightview…andhasarrivedatthistrue
Dhamma.”
[consciousness]
56.Saying,“Good,friend,”themonksdelightedandrejoicedintheVenerable
Sāriputta’swords.Thentheyaskedhimafurtherquestion:“But,friend,might
therebeanotherwayinwhichanoblediscipleisoneofrightview...andhas
arrivedatthistrueDhamma?”—“Theremightbe,friends.
57.“When,friends,anoblediscipleunderstandsconsciousness,theoriginof
consciousness, the cessation of consciousness, and the way leading to the
cessationofconsciousness,inthatwayheisoneofrightview...andhasarrived
atthistrueDhamma.
58.“Andwhatisconsciousness,whatistheoriginofconsciousness,whatis
the cessation of consciousness, what is the way leading to the cessation of
consciousness?Therearethesesixclassesofconsciousness:eye-consciousness,
ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness, tongue-consciousness, body-
consciousness,mind-consciousness.
20
With thearising of volitionalformations
thereisthearisingofconsciousness.Withthecessationofvolitionalformations
there is the cessation of consciousness. The way leading to the cessation of
consciousness is just this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view ... right
concentration.
59.“Whenanobledisciplehasthusunderstoodconsciousness,theoriginof
consciousness, the cessation of consciousness, and the way leading to the
cessationofconsciousness…hehereandnowmakesanendofsuffering.Inthat
way too a noble disciple is one of right view … and has arrived at this true
Dhamma.”
[volitionalformations]
60.Saying,“Good,friend,”themonksdelightedandrejoicedintheVenerable
Sāriputta’swords.Thentheyaskedhimafurtherquestion:“But,friend,might
therebeanotherwayinwhichanoblediscipleisoneofrightview…andhas
arrivedatthistrueDhamma?”—“Theremightbe,friends.
61. “When, friends, a noble disciple understands volitional formations, the
origin of volitional formations, the cessation of volitional formations, and the
wayleadingtothecessationofvolitionalformations,inthatwayheisoneof
rightview…andhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.
62. “And what are volitional formations, what is the origin of volitional
formations, what is the cessation of volitional formations, what is the way
leadingtothecessationofvolitionalformations?Therearethesethreekindsof
volitional formations: the bodily volitional formation, the verbal volitional
formation,thementalvolitionalformation.
21
Withthearisingofignorancethere
isthearisingofvolitionalformations.Withthecessationofignorancethereis
the cessation of volitional formations. The way leading to the cessation of
volitionalformationsisjustthisNobleEightfoldPath;thatis,rightview…right
concentration.
63. “When a noble disciple has thus understood volitional formations, the
origin of volitional formations, the cessation of volitional formations, and the
wayleadingtothecessationofvolitionalformations…hehereandnowmakes
anendofsuffering.Inthatwaytooanoblediscipleisoneofrightview…and
hasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.”
[ignorance]
64.Saying,“Good,friend,”themonksdelightedandrejoicedintheVenerable
Sāriputta’swords.Thentheyaskedhimafurtherquestion:“But,friend,might
therebeanotherwayinwhichanoblediscipleisoneofrightview…andhas
arrivedatthistrueDhamma?”—“Theremightbe,friends.
65. “When, friends, a noble disciple understands ignorance, the origin of
ignorance,the cessation of ignorance,and the way leadingto the cessation of
ignorance, in that way he is one of right view … and has arrived at this true
Dhamma.
66. “And what is ignorance, what is the origin of ignorance, what is the
cessationofignorance,whatisthewayleadingtothecessationofignorance?
Not knowing about suffering, not knowing about the origin of suffering, not
knowingaboutthecessationofsuffering,notknowingaboutthewayleadingto
thecessationofsuffering—thisiscalledignorance.Withthearisingofthetaints
there is the arising of ignorance. With the cessation of the taints there is the
cessationofignorance.Thewayleadingtothecessationofignoranceisjustthis
NobleEightfoldPath;thatis,rightview…rightconcentration.
67. “When a noble disciple has thus understood ignorance, the origin of
ignorance,the cessation of ignorance,and the way leadingto the cessation of
ignorance…hehereandnowmakesanendofsuffering.Inthatwaytooanoble
discipleisoneofrightview…andhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.”
[taints]
68.Saying,“Good,friend,”themonksdelightedandrejoicedintheVenerable
Sāriputta’swords.Thentheyaskedhimafurtherquestion:“But,friend,might
therebeanotherwayinwhichanoblediscipleisoneofrightview,whoseview
isstraight,whohasconfirmedconfidenceintheDhamma,andhasarrivedatthis
trueDhamma?”—“Theremightbe,friends.
69.“When,friends,anoblediscipleunderstandsthetaints,theoriginofthe
taints, the cessation of the taints, and the way leading to the cessation of the
taints, in that way he is one of right view, whose view is straight, who has
confirmedconfidenceintheDhamma,andhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.
70. “And what are the taints, what is the origin of the taints, what is the
cessation of the taints, what is the way leading to the cessation of the taints?
Therearethesethreetaints:thetaintofsensualdesire,thetaintofexistence,and
thetaintofignorance.Withthearisingofignorancethereisthearisingofthe
taints.
22
Withthecessationofignorancethereisthecessationofthetaints.The
wayleadingtothecessationofthetaintsisjustthisNobleEightfoldPath;thatis,
rightview,rightintention,rightspeech,rightaction,rightlivelihood,righteffort,
rightmindfulness,andrightconcentration.
71.“Whena nobledisciple hasthus understood thetaints, theoriginof the
taints, the cessation of the taints, and the way leading to the cessation of the
taints, he entirely abandons the underlying tendency to lust, he abolishes the
underlying tendency to aversion, he extirpates the underlying tendency to the
view and conceit ‘I am,’ and by abandoning ignorance and arousing true
knowledgehehereandnowmakesanendofsuffering.Inthatwaytooanoble
discipleisoneofrightview,whoseviewisstraight,whohasperfectconfidence
intheDhamma,andhasarrivedatthistrueDhamma.”
That is what the Venerable Sāriputta said. The monks were satisfied and
delightedintheVenerableSāriputta’swords.
(MN9:SammādiṭṭhiSutta;I46–55)
4.THEDOMAINOFWISDOM
(1)ByWayoftheFiveAggregates
(a)PhasesoftheAggregates
At Sāvatthī, the Blessed One said: “Monks, there are these five aggregates
subject to clinging. What five? The form aggregate subject to clinging, the
feeling aggregate subject to clinging, the perception aggregate subject to
clinging, the volitional formations aggregate subject to clinging, the
consciousnessaggregatesubjecttoclinging.
“So long as I did not directly know as they really are the five aggregates
subject to clinging in four phases,
23
I did not claim to have awakened to the
unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this world with its devas, Māra, and
Brahmā,inthispopulationwithitsasceticsandbrahmins,itsdevasandhumans.
ButwhenIdirectlyknewallthisasitreallyis,thenIclaimedtohaveawakened
to the unsurpassed perfect enlightenment in this world with ... its devas and
humans.
“Andhow,monks,aretherefourphases?Idirectlyknewform,itsorigin,its
cessation, and the way leading to its cessation. I directly knew feeling ...
perception...volitionalformations…consciousness,itsorigin,itscessation,and
thewayleadingtoitscessation.
“And what, monks, is form? The four great elements and the form derived
fromthefourgreatelements:thisiscalledform.Withthearisingofnutriment
thereisthearisingofform.Withthecessationofnutrimentthereisthecessation
ofform.ThisNobleEightfoldPathisthewayleadingtothecessationofform;
thatis,rightview...rightconcentration.
“Whateverasceticsandbrahmins,havingthusdirectlyknownform,itsorigin,
itscessation,andthewayleadingtoitscessation,arepracticingforthepurpose
of disenchantment with form, for its fading away and cessation, they are
practicing well. Those who are practicing well have gained a foothold in this
DhammaandDiscipline.
24
“Andwhatever ascetics and brahmins, having thus directly known form, its
origin, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation, through
disenchantmentwithform,throughitsfadingawayandcessation,areliberated
by nonclinging, they are well liberated. Those who are well liberated are
consummate ones. As to those consummate ones, there is no round for their
manifestation.
25
“Andwhat,monks,isfeeling?Therearethesesixclassesoffeeling:feeling
born of eye-contact, feeling born of ear-contact, feeling born of nose-contact,
feeling born of tongue-contact, feeling born of body-contact, feeling born of
mind-contact. This is called feeling. With the arising of contact there is the
arisingoffeeling.Withthecessationofcontactthereisthecessationoffeeling.
ThisNobleEightfoldPathisthewayleadingtothecessationoffeeling;thatis,
rightview...rightconcentration.
“Whatever ascetics and brahmins, having thus directly known feeling, its
origin,itscessation,andthewayleadingtoitscessation,arepracticingforthe
purposeofdisenchantmentwithfeeling,foritsfadingawayandcessation,they
arepracticingwell.Thosewhoarepracticingwellhavegainedafootholdinthis
DhammaandDiscipline.
“Andwhateverasceticsandbrahmins,havingthusdirectlyknownfeeling...
andthewayleadingtoitscessation…Astothoseconsummateones,thereisno
roundfortheirmanifestation.
“Andwhat,monks,isperception?Therearethesesixclassesofperception:
perception of forms, perception of sounds, perception of odors, perception of
tastes, perception of tactile objects, perception of mental phenomena. This is
calledperception.Withthearisingofcontactthereisthearisingofperception.
With the cessation of contact there is the cessation of perception. This Noble
Eightfold Path is the way leading to the cessation of perception; that is, right
view...rightconcentration.
“Whateverasceticsandbrahmins…Astothoseconsummateones,thereisno
roundfortheirmanifestation.
“Andwhat,monks,arevolitionalformations?Therearethesesixclassesof
volition:
26
 volition regarding forms, volition regarding sounds, volition
regarding odors, volition regarding tastes, volition regarding tactile objects,
volition regarding mental phenomena. These are called volitional formations.
Withthearisingofcontactthereisthearisingofvolitionalformations.Withthe
cessationofcontactthereisthe cessationofvolitionalformations.ThisNoble
EightfoldPathisthewayleadingtothecessationofvolitionalformations;that
is,rightview…rightconcentration.
“Whateverasceticsandbrahmins…Astothoseconsummateones,thereisno
roundfortheirmanifestation.
“And what, monks, is consciousness? There are these six classes of
consciousness: eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness,
tongue-consciousness, body-consciousness, mind-consciousness. This is called
consciousness. With the arising of name-and-form there is the arising of
consciousness.
27
Withthecessationofname-and-formthereisthecessationof
consciousness.ThisNobleEightfoldPathisthewayleadingtothecessationof
consciousness;thatis,rightview...rightconcentration.
“Whateverasceticsandbrahmins,havingthusdirectlyknownconsciousness,
itsorigin,itscessation,andthewayleadingtoitscessation,arepracticingforthe
purpose of disenchantment with consciousness, for its fading away and
cessation,theyarepracticingwell.Thosewhoarepracticingwellhavegaineda
footholdinthisDhammaandDiscipline.
“And whatever ascetics and brahmins, having thus directly known
consciousness, its origin, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation,
through disenchantment with consciousness, through its fading away and
cessation,areliberatedbynonclinging,theyarewellliberated.Thosewhoare
wellliberatedareconsummateones.Astothoseconsummateones,thereisno
roundfortheirmanifestation.”
(SN22:56;III58–61)
(b)ACatechismontheAggregates
OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingatSāvatthīintheEasternPark,
intheMansionofMigāra’sMother,togetherwithagreatSaṅghaofmonks.Now
on that occasion—the uposatha day of the fifteenth, a full-moon night—the
BlessedOnewassittingoutintheopensurroundedbytheSaṅghaofmonks.
Then a certain monk rose from his seat, arranged his upper robe over one
shoulder, raised his joined hands in reverential salutation toward the Blessed
One, and said to him: “Venerable sir, I would ask the Blessed One about a
certain point, if the Blessed One would grant me the favor of answering my
question.”
“Wellthen,monk,sitdowninyourownseatandaskwhateveryouwish.”
“Yes,venerablesir,”thatmonkreplied.Thenhesatdowninhisownseatand
saidtotheBlessedOne:
“Aren’tthesethefiveaggregatessubjecttoclinging,venerablesir:thatis,the
formaggregatesubjecttoclinging,thefeelingaggregatesubjecttoclinging,the
perception aggregate subject to clinging, the volitional formations aggregate
subjecttoclinging,theconsciousnessaggregatesubjecttoclinging?”
“Theyare,monk.”
Saying,“Good,venerablesir,”thatmonkdelightedandrejoicedintheBlessed
One’sstatement.ThenheaskedtheBlessedOneafurtherquestion:
“But, venerable sir, in what are these five aggregates subject to clinging
rooted?”
“Thesefiveaggregatessubjecttoclinging,monk,arerootedindesire.”
28
“Venerable sir, is that clinging the same as these five aggregates subject to
clinging,oristheclingingsomethingapartfromthefiveaggregatessubjectto
clinging?”
“Monk, that clinging is neither the same as the five aggregates subject to
clinging,noristheclingingsomethingapartfromthefiveaggregatessubjectto
clinging.Butrather,thedesireandlustforthem,thatistheclingingthere.”
29
Saying,“Good,venerablesir,”thatmonk...askedtheBlessedOneafurther
question:
“But,venerablesir, cantherebediversityinthedesireand lust forthefive
aggregatessubjecttoclinging?”
“There can be, monk,” the Blessed One said. “Here, monk, it occurs to
someone:‘MayIbeofsuchforminthefuture!MayIbeofsuchfeelinginthe
future!MayIbeofsuchperceptioninthefuture!MayIbeofsuchvolitional
formationsinthefuture!MayIbeofsuchconsciousnessinthefuture!’Thus,
monk,therecanbediversityinthedesireandlustforthefiveaggregatessubject
toclinging.”
Saying,“Good,venerablesir,”thatmonk...askedtheBlessedOneafurther
question:
“In what way, venerable sir, does the designation ‘aggregates’ apply to the
aggregates?”
“Whatever kind of form there is, monk, whether past, future, or present,
internalorexternal,grossorsubtle,inferiororsuperior,farornear:thisiscalled
theformaggregate.Whateverkindoffeelingthereis,whetherpast,future,or
present,internalorexternal,grossorsubtle,inferiororsuperior,farornear:this
is called the feeling aggregate. Whatever kind of perception there is, whether
past,future,orpresent,internalorexternal,grossorsubtle,inferiororsuperior,
farornear:thisiscalledtheperceptionaggregate.Whateverkindofvolitional
formationsthereare,whetherpast,future,orpresent,internalorexternal,gross
orsubtle,inferiororsuperior,farornear:thisiscalledthevolitionalformations
aggregate. Whatever kind of consciousness there is, whether past, future, or
present,internalorexternal,grossorsubtle,inferiororsuperior,farornear:this
is called the consciousness aggregate. It is in this way, monk, that the
designation‘aggregates’appliestotheaggregates.”
Saying,“Good,venerablesir,”thatmonk...askedtheBlessedOneafurther
question:
“Whatisthecauseandcondition,venerablesir,forthemanifestationofthe
form aggregate? What is the cause and condition for the manifestation of the
feelingaggregate?…forthemanifestationoftheperceptionaggregate?…forthe
manifestationofthevolitionalformationsaggregate?…forthemanifestationof
theconsciousnessaggregate?”
“The four great elements, monk, are the cause and condition for the
manifestationoftheformaggregate.Contactisthecauseandconditionforthe
manifestation of the feeling aggregate, the perception aggregate, and the
volitionalformationsaggregate.Name-and-formisthecauseandconditionfor
themanifestationoftheconsciousnessaggregate.”
“Venerablesir,howdoesidentityviewcometobe?”
“Here,monk,theuninstructedworldling,whoisnotaseerofthenobleones
andisunskilledandundisciplinedintheirDhamma,whoisnotaseerofsuperior
persons and is unskilled and undisciplined in their Dhamma, regards form as
self,orselfaspossessingform,orformasinself,orselfasinform.Heregards
feeling as self ... perception as self ... volitional formations as self ...
consciousnessasself,orselfaspossessingconsciousness,orconsciousnessasin
self,orselfasinconsciousness.Thatishowidentityviewcomestobe.”
“But,venerablesir,howdoesidentityviewnotcometobe?”
“Here,monk,theinstructednobledisciple,whoisaseerofthenobleonesand
isskilledanddisciplinedintheirDhamma,whoisaseerofsuperiorpersonsand
isskilledanddisciplinedintheirDhamma,doesnotregardformasself,orself
as possessing form, or form as in self, or self as in form. He does not regard
feeling as self ... perception as self … volitional formations as self ...
consciousnessasself,orselfaspossessingconsciousness,orconsciousnessasin
self,orselfasinconsciousness.Thatishowidentityviewdoesnotcometobe.”
“What,venerablesir,isthegratification,thedanger,andtheescapeinthecase
ofthefiveaggregates?”
“The pleasure and joy, monk, that arise in dependence on form: this is the
gratification in form. That form is impermanent, suffering, and subject to
change:thisisthedangerinform.Theremovalandabandonmentofdesireand
lustfor form: this isthe escape from form.The pleasure and joythat arise in
dependence on feeling ... in dependence on perception ... in dependence on
volitionalformations...independenceonconsciousness:thisisthegratification
inconsciousness.Thatconsciousnessisimpermanent,suffering,andsubjectto
change:thisis thedanger inconsciousness. Theremovaland abandonmentof
desireandlustforconsciousness:thisistheescapefromconsciousness.”
Saying,“Good,venerablesir,”thatmonkdelightedandrejoicedintheBlessed
One’sstatement.ThenheaskedtheBlessedOneafurtherquestion:
“Venerablesir,howshouldoneknowandseesothat,inregardtothisbody
withconsciousnessandinregardtoallexternalsigns,I-making,mine-making,
andtheunderlyingtendencytoconceitnolongeroccurwithin?”
30
“Anykindofformwhatsoever,monk,whetherpast,future,orpresent,internal
orexternal,grossorsubtle,inferiororsuperior,farornear—oneseesallformas
itreallyiswithcorrectwisdomthus:‘Thisisnotmine,thisIamnot,thisisnot
myself.’
“Any kind of feeling whatsoever … Any kind of perception whatsoever ...
Any kind of volitional formations whatsoever . . . Any kind of consciousness
whatsoever,whetherpast,future,orpresent,internalorexternal,grossorsubtle,
inferiororsuperior,farornear—oneseesallconsciousnessasitreallyiswith
correctwisdomthus:‘Thisisnotmine,thisIamnot,thisisnotmyself.’
“When one knows and sees thus, monk, then in regard to this body with
consciousnessand inregard to all external signs,I-making,mine-making, and
theunderlyingtendencytoconceitnolongeroccurwithin.”
(fromSN22:82,abridged;100–103=MN109,abridged;III15–19)
(c)TheCharacteristicofNonself
ThushaveIheard.OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingatBārāṇasīin
theDeerParkatIsipatana.
31
TheretheBlessedOneaddressedthemonksofthe
groupoffivethus:“Monks!”
“Venerablesir!”thosemonksreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
“Monks,formisnonself.Forif,monks,formwereself,thisformwouldnot
leadtoaffliction,anditwouldbepossibletodetermineform:‘Letmyformbe
thus; let my form not be thus.’ But because form is nonself, form leads to
affliction,anditisnotpossibletodetermineform:‘Letmyformbethus;letmy
formnotbethus.’
32
“Feeling is nonself…. Perception is nonself…. Volitional formations are
nonself….Consciousnessisnonself.Forif,monks,consciousnesswereself,this
consciousnesswouldnotleadtoaffliction,anditwouldbepossibletodetermine
consciousness: ‘Let my consciousness be thus; let my consciousness not be
thus.’ But because consciousness is nonself, consciousness leads to affliction,
anditisnotpossibletodetermineconsciousness:‘Letmyconsciousnessbethus;
letmyconsciousnessnotbethus.’
“What do you think, monks, is form permanent or
impermanent?”—“Impermanent, venerable sir.”—“Is what is impermanent
sufferingorhappiness?”—“Suffering,venerablesir.”—“Iswhatisimpermanent,
suffering,andsubjecttochangefittoberegardedthus:‘Thisismine,thisIam,
thisismyself’?”—“No,venerablesir.”
“Is feeling permanent or impermanent?… Is perception permanent or
impermanent?… Are volitional formations permanent or impermanent? … Is
consciousness permanent or impermanent?”—“Impermanent, venerable
sir.”—“Iswhatisimpermanentsufferingorhappiness?”—“Suffering,venerable
sir.”—“Is what is impermanent, suffering, and subject to change fit to be
regardedthus:‘Thisismine,thisIam,thisismyself’?”—“No,venerablesir.”
“Therefore, monks, any kind of form whatsoever, whether past, future, or
present,internalorexternal,grossorsubtle,inferiororsuperior,farornear,all
formshouldbeseenasitreallyiswithcorrectwisdomthus:‘Thisisnotmine,
thisIamnot,thisisnotmyself.’
“Any kind of feeling whatsoever … Any kind of perception whatsoever ...
Any kind of volitional formations whatsoever … Any kind of consciousness
whatsoever,whetherpast,future,orpresent,internalorexternal,grossorsubtle,
inferiororsuperior,farornear,allconsciousnessshouldbeseenasitreallyis
withcorrectwisdomthus:‘Thisisnotmine,thisIamnot,thisisnotmyself.’
“Seeingthus,monks,theinstructednobledisciplebecomesdisenchantedwith
form, disenchanted with feeling, disenchanted with perception, disenchanted
with volitional formations, disenchanted with consciousness. Becoming
disenchanted, he becomes dispassionate. Through dispassion [his mind] is
liberated. When it is liberated there comes the knowledge: ‘It’s liberated.’ He
understands:‘Destroyedisbirth,thespirituallifehasbeenlived,whathadtobe
donehasbeendone,thereisnomorecomingbacktoanystateofbeing.’”
That is what the Blessed One said. Elated, those monks delighted in the
BlessedOne’sstatement.Andwhilethisdiscoursewasbeingspoken,theminds
ofthemonksofthegroupoffivewereliberatedfromthetaintsbynonclinging.
(SN22:59;III66–68)
(d)Impermanent,Suffering,Nonself
“Monks, form is impermanent. What is impermanent is suffering. What is
sufferingisnonself.Whatisnonselfshouldbeseenasitreallyiswithcorrect
wisdomthus:‘Thisisnotmine,thisIamnot,thisisnotmyself.’Whenonesees
thisthusasitreallyiswithcorrectwisdom,themindbecomesdispassionateand
isliberatedfromthetaintsbynonclinging.
“Feeling is impermanent…. Perception is impermanent…. Volitional
formations are impermanent…. Consciousness is impermanent. What is
impermanentissuffering.Whatissufferingisnonself.Whatisnonselfshouldbe
seenasitreallyiswithcorrectwisdomthus:‘Thisisnotmine,thisIamnot,this
isnotmyself.’Whenoneseesthisthusasitreallyiswithcorrectwisdom,the
mindbecomesdispassionateandisliberatedfromthetaintsbynonclinging.
“If, monks, a monk’s mind has become dispassionate toward the form
element,itisliberatedfromthetaintsbynonclinging.Ifhismindhasbecome
dispassionate toward the feeling element ... toward the perception element ...
towardthevolitionalformationselement...towardtheconsciousnesselement,it
isliberatedfromthetaintsbynonclinging.
“By being liberated, it is steady; by being steady, it is content; by being
content,heisnotagitated.Beingunagitated,hepersonallyattainsNibbāna.He
understands:‘Destroyedisbirth,thespirituallifehasbeenlived,whathadtobe
donehasbeendone,thereisnomorecomingbacktoanystateofbeing.’”
(SN22:45;III44–45)
(e)ALumpofFoam
Ononeoccasion theBlessedOne was dwellingatAyojjhāon the bankofthe
riverGanges.TheretheBlessedOneaddressedthemonksthus:
“Monks,supposethat thisriverGangeswas carryingalonga greatlumpof
foam. A man with good sight would inspect it, ponder it, and carefully
investigateit,anditwouldappeartohimtobevoid,hollow,insubstantial.For
whatsubstancecouldtherebeinalumpoffoam?Sotoo,monks,whateverkind
offormthereis,whetherpast,future,orpresent,internalorexternal,grossor
subtle, inferior or superior, far or near: a monk inspects it, ponders it, and
carefully investigates it, and it would appear to him to be void, hollow,
insubstantial.Forwhatsubstancecouldtherebeinform?
33
“Suppose,monks,thatintheautumn,whenitisrainingandbigraindropsare
falling,awaterbubblearisesandburstsonthesurfaceofthewater.Amanwith
goodsightwouldinspectit,ponderit,andcarefullyinvestigateit,anditwould
appeartohimtobevoid,hollow,insubstantial.Forwhatsubstancecouldthere
beinawaterbubble?Sotoo,monks,whateverkindoffeelingthereis,whether
past,future,orpresent,internalorexternal,grossorsubtle,inferiororsuperior,
faror near:a monkinspects it,ponders it,and carefullyinvestigatesit, andit
wouldappeartohimtobevoid,hollow,insubstantial.Forwhatsubstancecould
therebeinfeeling?
34
“Suppose, monks, that in the last month of the hot season, at high noon, a
shimmeringmirageappears.Amanwithgoodsightwouldinspectit,ponderit,
and carefully investigate it, and it would appear to him to be void, hollow,
insubstantial. For what substance could there be in a mirage? So too, monks,
whateverkindofperceptionthereis,whetherpast,future,orpresent,internalor
external, gross or subtle, inferior or superior, far or near: a monk inspects it,
pondersit,andcarefullyinvestigatesit,anditwouldappeartohimtobevoid,
hollow, insubstantial. For what substance could there be in perception?
35
“Suppose,monks,thatamanneedingheartwood,seekingheartwood,wandering
in search of heartwood, would take a sharp axe and enter a forest. There he
wouldsee the trunk of a large bananatree, straight, fresh, without afruit-bud
core.Hewouldcutitdownattheroot,cutoffthecrown,andunrollthecoil.As
heunrollsthecoil,hewouldnotfindevensoftwood,letaloneheartwood.Aman
withgoodsight wouldinspect it,ponderit, andcarefully investigateit,and it
wouldappeartohimtobevoid,hollow,insubstantial.Forwhatsubstancecould
therebeinthetrunkofabananatree?Sotoo,monks,whateverkindofvolitional
formationsthereare,whetherpast,future,orpresent,internalorexternal,gross
orsubtle,inferiororsuperior,farornear:amonkinspectsthem,pondersthem,
andcarefullyinvestigatesthem.Asheinvestigatesthem,theyappeartohimto
be void, hollow, insubstantial. For what substance could there be in volitional
formations?
36
“Suppose, monks, that a magician or a magician’s apprentice
woulddisplayamagicalillusionatacrossroads.Amanwithgoodsightwould
inspectit,ponderit,andcarefullyinvestigateit,anditwouldappeartohimtobe
void, hollow, insubstantial. For what substance could there be in a magical
illusion?Sotoo,monks,whateverkindofconsciousnessthereis,whetherpast,
future,orpresent,internalorexternal,grossorsubtle,inferiororsuperior,faror
near:amonkinspectsit,pondersit,andcarefullyinvestigatesit,anditwould
appeartohimtobevoid,hollow,insubstantial.Forwhatsubstancecouldthere
beinconsciousness?
37
“Seeingthus,monks,theinstructednobledisciplebecomesdisenchantedwith
form, disenchanted with feeling, disenchanted with perception, disenchanted
with volitional formations, disenchanted with consciousness. Becoming
disenchanted, he becomes dispassionate. Through dispassion [his mind] is
liberated. When it is liberated there comes the knowledge: ‘It’s liberated.’ He
understands:‘Destroyedisbirth,thespirituallifehasbeenlived,whathadtobe
donehasbeendone,thereisnomorecomingbacktoanystateofbeing.’”
(SN22:95;III140–42)
(2)ByWayoftheSixSenseBases
(a)FullUnderstanding
“Monks, without directly knowing and fully understanding the all, without
developing dispassion toward it and abandoning it, one is incapable of
destroyingsuffering.
“And what, monks, is that all? Without directly knowing and fully
understandingtheeye,withoutdevelopingdispassiontowarditandabandoning
it,oneisincapableofdestroyingsuffering.Withoutdirectlyknowingandfully
understanding forms … eye-consciousness ... eye-contact ... and whatever
feeling arises with eye-contact as condition … without developing dispassion
towarditandabandoningit,oneisincapableofdestroyingsuffering.
“Withoutdirectlyknowingandfullyunderstandingtheear...themind...and
whatever feeling arises with mind-contact as condition … without developing
dispassiontowarditandabandoningit,oneisincapableofdestroyingsuffering.
“This,monks,istheall.Withoutdirectlyknowingandfullyunderstandingthis
all...oneisincapableofdestroyingsuffering.
“Monks,bydirectlyknowingandfullyunderstandingtheall,bydeveloping
dispassiontowarditandabandoningit,oneiscapableofdestroyingsuffering.
“Andwhat,monks,isthatall?Bydirectlyknowingandfullyunderstanding
theeye...themind...andwhateverfeelingariseswithmind-contactascondition
… by developing dispassion toward it and abandoning it, one is capable of
destroyingsuffering.
“This,monks,istheallbydirectlyknowingandfullyunderstandingwhich...
oneiscapableofdestroyingsuffering.”
(SN35:26;IV17–18)
(b)Burning
On one occasion the Blessed One was dwelling at Gayā, at Gayā’s Head,
together with a thousand monks. There theBlessed One addressed the monks
thus:
38
“Monks,allisburning.Andwhat,monks,istheallthatisburning?Theeyeis
burning, forms are burning, eye-consciousness is burning, eye-contact is
burning, and whatever feeling arises with eye-contact as condition—whether
pleasantorpainfulorneither-painful-nor-pleasant—thattooisburning.Burning
withwhat?Burningwiththefireoflust,withthefireofhatred,withthefireof
delusion;burningwithbirth, aging,anddeath; withsorrow,lamentation,pain,
dejection,anddespair,Isay.
“Theearisburning...Themindisburning...andwhateverfeelingariseswith
mind-contactas condition—whether pleasant or painful or neither-painful-nor-
pleasant—thattooisburning.Burningwithwhat?Burningwiththefireoflust,
withthefireofhatred,withthefireofdelusion;burningwithbirth,aging,and
death;withsorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair,Isay.
“Seeingthus,monks,theinstructednobledisciplebecomesdisenchantedwith
the eye, with forms, with eye-consciousness, with eye-contact, with whatever
feeling arises with eye-contact as condition—whether pleasant or painful or
neither-painful-nor-pleasant;becomesdisenchantedwiththeear...withthemind
... with whatever feeling arises with mind-contact as condition…. Becoming
disenchanted, he becomes dispassionate. Through dispassion [his mind] is
liberated. When it is liberated there comes the knowledge: ‘It’s liberated.’ He
understands:‘Destroyedisbirth,thespirituallifehasbeenlived,whathadtobe
donehasbeendone,thereisnomorecomingbacktoanystateofbeing.’”
This is what the Blessed One said. Elated, those monks delighted in the
BlessedOne’sstatement.Andwhilethisdiscoursewasbeingspoken,theminds
ofthethousandmonkswereliberatedfromthetaintsbynonclinging.
(SN35:28;IV19–20)
(c)SuitableforAttainingNibbāna
“Monks,IwillteachyouthewaythatissuitableforattainingNibbāna.Listen….
“Andwhat,monks,isthewaythatissuitableforattainingNibbāna?Here,a
monkseestheeyeasimpermanent,heseesformsasimpermanent,heseeseye-
consciousnessasimpermanent,heseeseye-contactasimpermanent,heseesas
impermanent whatever feeling arises with eye-contact as condition, whether
pleasantorpainfulorneither-painful-nor-pleasant.
“Heseestheearasimpermanent…Heseesthemindasimpermanent,hesees
mental phenomena as impermanent, he sees mind-consciousness as
impermanent, he sees mind-contact as impermanent, he sees as impermanent
whatever feeling arises with mind-contact as condition, whether pleasant or
painfulorneither-painful-nor-pleasant.This,monks,isthewaythatissuitable
forattainingNibbāna.”
“Heseestheeyeassuffering...heseesassufferingwhateverfeelingarises
withmind-contactascondition,whetherpleasantorpainfulorneither-painful-
nor-pleasant.This,monks,isthewaythatissuitableforattainingNibbāna.
“Heseestheeyeasnonself…heseesasnonselfwhateverfeelingariseswith
mind-contact as condition, whether pleasant or painful or neither-painful-nor-
pleasant.This,monks,isthewaythatissuitableforattainingNibbāna.”
(SN35:147–49,combined;IV133–35)
(d)EmptyIstheWorld
Then the Venerable Ānanda approached the Blessed One ... and said to him:
“Venerablesir,itissaid,‘Emptyistheworld,emptyistheworld.’Inwhatway,
venerablesir,isitsaid,‘Emptyistheworld’?”
“Itis,Ānanda,becauseitisemptyofselfandofwhatbelongstoselfthatitis
said,‘Empty isthe world.’ Andwhat is emptyof selfand of what belongs to
self?Theeye,Ānanda,isemptyofselfandofwhatbelongstoself.Formsare
emptyofself andof whatbelongs to self.Eye-consciousness isemptyof self
andofwhatbelongstoself.Eye-contactisemptyofselfandofwhatbelongsto
self…. Whatever feeling arises with mind-contact as condition—whether
pleasantorpainfulorneither-painful-nor-pleasant—thattooisemptyofselfand
ofwhatbelongstoself.
“Itis,Ānanda,becauseitisemptyofselfandofwhatbelongstoselfthatitis
said,‘Emptyistheworld.’”
(SN35:85;IV54)
(e)ConsciousnessTooIsNonself
The Venerable Udāyī asked the Venerable Ānanda: “Friend Ānanda, in many
ways[thenatureof]thisbodyhasbeendeclared,disclosed,andrevealedbythe
Blessed One thus: ‘For such a reason this body is nonself.’ Is it possible to
explain[thenatureof]thisconsciousnessinasimilarway—toteach,proclaim,
establish, disclose, analyze, and elucidate it thus: ‘For such a reason this
consciousnessisnonself’?”
“Itispossible,friendUdāyī.Doesn’teye-consciousnessariseindependence
ontheeyeandforms?”
“Yes,friend.”
“Ifthecauseandconditionforthearisingofeye-consciousnesswouldcease
completely and totally without remainder, could eye-consciousness be
discerned?”
“No,friend.”
“In this way, friend, this has been declared, disclosed, and revealed by the
BlessedOnethus:‘Forsuchareasonthisconsciousnessisnonself.’
“Doesn’t ear-consciousness arise in dependence on the ear and sounds?…
Doesn’t mind-consciousness arise in dependence on the mind and mental
phenomena?”
“Yes,friend.”
“Ifthecauseandconditionforthearisingofmind-consciousnesswouldcease
completely and totally without remainder, could mind-consciousness be
discerned?”
“No,friend.”
“Inthiswaytoo,friend,thishasbeendeclared,disclosed,andrevealedbythe
BlessedOnethus:‘Forsuchareasonthisconsciousnessisnonself.’
“Suppose,friend,amanneedingheartwood,seekingheartwood,wanderingin
searchofheartwood,wouldtakeasharpaxeandenteraforest.Therehewould
seethetrunkofalargebananatree,straight,fresh,withoutafruit-budcore.He
would cut it down at the root, cut off the crown, and unroll the coil. As he
unrollsthecoil,hewouldnotfindevensoftwood,letaloneheartwood.
“Sotoo,amonkdoesnotrecognizeeitheraselforanythingbelongingtoa
selfinthesesixbasesforcontact.Sincehedoesnotrecognizeanythingthus,he
doesnotclingtoanythingintheworld.Notclinging,heisnotagitated.Being
unagitated,he personallyattains Nibbāna.Heunderstands:‘Destroyedisbirth,
thespirituallifehasbeenlived,whathadtobedonehasbeendone,thereisno
morecomingbacktoanystateofbeing.’”
(SN35:234;IV166–68)
(3)ByWayoftheElements
(a)TheEighteenElements
“Monks, I will teach you the diversity of elements. The eye element, form
element, eye-consciousness element; the ear element, sound element, ear-
consciousness element; the nose element, odor element, nose-consciousness
element;the tongueelement, taste element, tongue-consciousness element;the
body element, tactile-object element, body-consciousness element; the mind
element,mental-phenomenaelement,mind-consciousnesselement.This,monks,
iscalledthediversityofelements.”
(SN14:1;II140)
(b)TheFourElements
“Monks,therearethesefourelements.Whatfour?Theearthelement,thewater
element,theheatelement,theairelement.
“Thoseasceticsorbrahmins,monks,whodonotunderstandastheyreallyare
thegratification,thedanger,andtheescapeinthecaseofthesefourelements:
these I do not consider to be ascetics among ascetics or brahmins among
brahmins,andthesevenerableonesdonot,byrealizingitforthemselveswith
directknowledge,inthisverylifeenteranddwellinthegoalofasceticismorthe
goalofbrahminhood.
“But,monks,thoseasceticsandbrahminswhounderstandastheyreallyare
thegratification,thedanger,andtheescapeinthecaseofthesefourelements:
theseI consider tobe ascetics amongascetics and brahminsamong brahmins,
andthesevenerableones,byrealizingitforthemselveswithdirectknowledge,
in this very life enter and dwell in the goal of asceticism and the goal of
brahminhood.”
“Thoseasceticsorbrahmins,monks,whodonotunderstandastheyreallyare
theoriginandthepassingaway,thegratification,thedanger,andtheescapein
the case of these four elements: these I do not consider to be ascetics among
ascetics….
“But,monks,thoseasceticsandbrahminswhounderstandthesethings:theseI
considertobeasceticsamongasceticsandbrahminsamongbrahmins,andthese
venerableones,byrealizingitforthemselveswithdirectknowledge,inthisvery
lifeenteranddwellinthegoalofasceticismandthegoalofbrahminhood.”
“Monks,thoseasceticsorbrahminswhodonotunderstandtheearthelement,
its origin, its cessation, and the way leading to its cessation; who do not
understandthewaterelement...theheatelement...theairelement,itsorigin,its
cessation, and the way leading to its cessation: these I do not consider to be
asceticsamongascetics….
“But,monks,thoseasceticsandbrahminswhounderstandthesethings:theseI
considertobeasceticsamongasceticsandbrahminsamongbrahmins,andthese
venerableones,byrealizingitforthemselveswithdirectknowledge,inthisvery
lifeenteranddwellinthegoalofasceticismandthegoalofbrahminhood.”
(SN14:37–39,combined;II175–77)
(c)TheSixElements
13.“How,monk,doesonenotneglectwisdom?
39
Therearethesesixelements:
theearthelement,thewaterelement,thefireelement,theairelement,thespace
element,andtheconsciousnesselement.
14. “What, monk, is the earth element? The earth element may be either
internal or external. What is the internal earth element? Whatever internally,
belongingtooneself,issolid,solidified,andclung-to,thatis,head-hairs,body-
hairs,nails,teeth,skin,flesh,sinews,bones,bone-marrow,kidneys,heart,liver,
diaphragm,spleen,lungs,intestines,mesentery,stomach,feces,orwhateverelse
internally, belonging tooneself,issolid,solidified,and clung-to:thisiscalled
theinternalearthelement.Nowboththeinternalearthelementandtheexternal
earthelementaresimplyearthelement.Andthatshouldbeseenasitreallyis
withcorrectwisdomthus:‘Thisisnotmine,thisIamnot,thisisnotmyself.’
When one sees it thus as it really is with correct wisdom, one becomes
disenchantedwiththeearthelementandmakestheminddispassionatetoward
theearthelement.
15. “What, monk, is the water element? The water element may be either
internal or external. What is the internal water element? Whatever internally,
belongingtooneself, is water,watery,andclung-to,that is,bile,phlegm,pus,
blood,sweat,fat,tears,grease,spittle,snot,oil-of-the-joints,urine,orwhatever
elseinternally,belongingtooneself,iswater,watery,andclung-to:thisiscalled
theinternalwaterelement.Nowboththeinternalwaterelementandtheexternal
waterelementaresimplywaterelement.Andthatshouldbeseenasitreallyis
withcorrectwisdomthus:‘Thisisnotmine,thisIamnot,thisisnotmyself.’
When one sees it thus as it really is with correct wisdom, one becomes
disenchantedwiththewaterelementandmakestheminddispassionatetoward
thewaterelement.
16.“What,monk,isthefireelement?Thefireelementmaybeeitherinternal
orexternal.Whatistheinternalfireelement?Whateverinternally,belongingto
oneself,isfire,fiery,andclung-to,thatis,thatbywhichoneiswarmed,ages,
andisconsumed,andthatbywhichwhatiseaten,drunk,consumed,andtasted
gets completely digested, or whatever else internally, belonging to oneself, is
fire, fiery, and clung-to: this is called the internal fire element. Now both the
internalfireelementandtheexternalfireelementaresimplyfireelement.And
thatshouldbeseenasitreallyiswithcorrectwisdomthus:‘Thisisnotmine,
thisIamnot,thisisnotmyself.’Whenoneseesitthusasitreallyiswithcorrect
wisdom,onebecomesdisenchantedwiththe fire elementandmakesthemind
dispassionatetowardthefireelement.
17.“What,monk,istheairelement?Theairelementmaybeeitherinternalor
external. What is the internal air element? Whatever internally, belonging to
oneself, is air, airy, and clung-to, that is, up-going winds, down-going winds,
windsinthebelly,windsinthebowels,windsthatcoursethroughthelimbs,in-
breath and out-breath, or whatever else internally,belonging to oneself, is air,
airy,andclung-to:thisiscalledtheinternalairelement.Nowboththeinternal
airelementandtheexternalairelementaresimplyairelement.Andthatshould
beseenasitreallyiswithcorrectwisdomthus:‘Thisisnotmine,thisIamnot,
thisisnotmyself.’Whenoneseesitthusasitreallyiswithcorrectwisdom,one
becomes disenchanted with the air element and makes the mind dispassionate
towardtheairelement.
18. “What, monk, is the space element? The space element may be either
internal or external. What is the internal space element? Whatever internally,
belongingtooneself,isspace,spatial,andclung-to,thatis,theholesoftheears,
thenostrils,thedoorofthe mouth, andthat[aperture]whereby what iseaten,
drunk,consumed,andtastedgetsswallowed,andwhereitcollects,andwhereby
it is excreted from below, or whatever else internally,belonging to oneself, is
space,spatial,andclung-to:thisiscalledtheinternalspaceelement.Nowboth
the internal space element and the external space element are simply space
element.Andthatshouldbeseenasitreallyiswithcorrectwisdomthus:‘This
isnotmine,thisIamnot,thisisnotmyself.’Whenoneseesitthusasitreallyis
with correct wisdom, one becomes disenchanted with the space element and
makestheminddispassionatetowardthespaceelement.
19.“Thenthereremainsonlyconsciousness,purifiedandbright.
40
Whatdoes
one cognize with that consciousness? One cognizes: ‘[This is] pleasant’; one
cognizes: ‘[This is] painful’; one cognizes: ‘[This is] neither-painful-nor-
pleasant.’Independenceonacontacttobefeltaspleasanttherearisesapleasant
feeling.
41
Whenonefeelsapleasantfeeling,oneunderstands:‘Ifeelapleasant
feeling.’Oneunderstands:‘Withthecessationofthatsamecontacttobefeltas
pleasant, its corresponding feeling—the pleasant feeling that arose in
dependence on that contact to be felt as pleasant—ceases and subsides.’ In
dependenceonacontacttobefeltaspainfultherearisesapainfulfeeling.When
one feels a painful feeling, one understands: ‘I feel a painful feeling. One
understands: ‘With the cessation of thatsame contact to be felt as painful, its
corresponding feeling—the painful feeling that arose in dependence on that
contacttobefeltaspainful—ceasesandsubsides.Independenceonacontact
to be felt as neither-painful-nor-pleasant there arises a neither-painful-nor-
pleasant feeling. When one feels a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, one
understands: ‘I feel a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.’ One understands:
‘With the cessation of that same contact to be felt as neither-painful-nor-
pleasant,itscorrespondingfeeling—theneither-painful-nor-pleasantfeelingthat
aroseindependenceonthatcontacttobefeltasneither-painful-nor-pleasant—
ceases and subsides.’ Monk, just as from the contact and friction of two fire-
sticks heat is generated and fire is produced, and with the separation and
disjunctionofthesetwofire-sticksthecorrespondingheatceasesandsubsides;
sotoo,independenceonacontacttobefeltaspleasant…tobefeltaspainful
… to be felt as neither-painful-nor-pleasant there arises a neither-painful-nor-
pleasantfeeling.…Oneunderstands:‘Withthecessationofthatsamecontactto
be felt as neither-painful-nor-pleasant, its corresponding feeling ... ceases and
subsides.’”
(fromMN140:DhātuvibhaṅgaSutta;III240–43)
(4)ByWayofDependentOrigination
(a)WhatIsDependentOrigination?
“Monks,Iwillteachyoudependentorigination.Listentothatandattendclosely,
Iwillspeak.”—“Yes,venerablesir,”thosemonksreplied.TheBlessedOnesaid
this:
“And what, monks, is dependent origination? With ignorance as condition,
volitional formations [come to be]; with volitional formations as condition,
consciousness; with consciousness as condition, name-and-form; with name-
and-formascondition,thesixsensebases;withthesixsensebasesascondition,
contact; with contact as condition, feeling; with feeling as condition, craving;
withcravingascondition,clinging;withclingingascondition,existence;with
existence as condition, birth; with birth as condition, aging-and-death, sorrow,
lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespaircometobe.Suchistheoriginofthis
wholemassofsuffering.This,monks,iscalleddependentorigination.
“But with the remainderless fading away and cessation of ignorance comes
cessation of volitional formations; with the cessation of volitional formations,
cessation of consciousness; with the cessation of consciousness, cessation of
name-and-form;withthecessationofname-and-form,cessationofthesixsense
bases;withthe cessationof thesixsense bases,cessation ofcontact;with the
cessationofcontact,cessationoffeeling;withthecessationoffeeling,cessation
of craving; with the cessation of craving, cessation of clinging; with the
cessation of clinging, cessation of existence; with the cessation of existence,
cessation of birth; with the cessation of birth, aging-and-death, sorrow,
lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair cease. Such is the cessation of this
wholemassofsuffering.”
(SN12:1;II1–2)
(b)TheStablenessoftheDhamma
“Monks, I will teach you dependent origination and dependently arisen
phenomena.Listenandattendclosely,Iwillspeak.”
“Yes,venerablesir,”thosemonksreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
“Andwhat,monks,isdependentorigination?‘Withbirthascondition,aging-
and-death[comestobe]’:whetherthereisanarisingofTathāgatasornoarising
ofTathāgatas,thatelementstillpersists,thestablenessoftheDhamma,thefixed
course of the Dhamma, specific conditionality.
42
A Tathāgata awakens to this
andbreaksthroughtoit.Havingdoneso,heexplainsit,teachesit,proclaimsit,
establishesit,disclosesit,analyzesit,elucidatesit.Andhesays:‘See!Withbirth
ascondition,monks,aging-and-deatharises.’
“‘Withexistenceascondition,birth’…‘Withclingingascondition,existence’
…‘Withcravingascondition,clinging’…‘Withfeelingascondition,craving’
…‘Withcontactascondition,feeling’…‘Withthesixsensebasesascondition,
contact’ ... ‘With name-and-form as condition, the six sense bases’ … ‘With
consciousness as condition, name-and-form’ ... ‘With volitional formations as
condition, consciousness’ ... ‘With ignorance as condition, volitional
formations’:whetherthereisanarisingofTathāgatasornoarisingofTathāgatas,
thatelementstillpersists,thestablenessoftheDhamma,thefixedcourseofthe
Dhamma, specific conditionality. A Tathāgata awakens to this and breaks
throughtoit.Havingdoneso,heexplainsit,teachesit,proclaimsit,establishes
it,disclosesit,analyzesit,elucidatesit.Andhesays:‘See!Withignoranceas
condition,monks,volitionalformationsarise.’
“Thus, monks, the actuality, the inerrancy, the invariability, the specific
conditionalityinthis:thisiscalleddependentorigination.
43
“Andwhat,monks,
are the dependently arisen phenomena? Aging-and-death, monks, is
impermanent,conditioned,dependentlyarisen,subjecttodestruction,vanishing,
fadingaway,andcessation.Birthisimpermanent…Existenceisimpermanent
… Clinging is impermanent . . . Craving is impermanent ... Feeling is
impermanent...Contactisimpermanent...Thesixsensebasesareimpermanent
... Name-and-form is impermanent ... Consciousness is impermanent ...
Volitional formations are impermanent … Ignorance is impermanent,
conditioned,dependentlyarisen,subjecttodestruction,vanishing,fadingaway,
andcessation.These,monks,arecalledthedependentlyarisenphenomena.
“When, monks, a noble disciple has clearly seen with correct wisdom as it
reallyisthisdependentoriginationandthesedependentlyarisenphenomena,itis
impossiblethathewillrunbackintothepast,thinking:‘DidIexistinthepast?
Did I not exist in the past? What was I in the past? How was I in the past?
Havingbeenwhat,whatdidIbecomeinthepast?’Orthathewillrunforward
intothefuture,thinking:‘WillIexistinthefuture?WillInotexistinthefuture?
WhatwillI be inthefuture? HowwillI beinthe future?Havingbeen what,
what will I become in the future?’ Or that he will now be inwardly confused
aboutthepresentthus:‘DoIexist?DoInotexist?WhatamI?HowamI?This
being—wherehasitcomefrom,andwherewillitgo?’
“For what reason? Because the noble disciple has clearly seen with correct
wisdom as it really is this dependent origination and these dependently arisen
phenomena.”
(SN12:20;II25–27)
(c)Forty-FourCasesofKnowledge
“Monks,Iwillteachyouforty-fourcasesofknowledge.Listentothatandattend
closely,Iwillspeak.”
“Yes,venerablesir,”thosemonksreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
“Monks, what are the forty-four cases of knowledge? Knowledgeof aging-
and-death,knowledgeofitsorigin,knowledgeofitscessation,knowledgeofthe
wayleadingtoitscessation.Knowledgeofbirth…Knowledgeofexistence
Knowledgeofclinging…Knowledgeofcraving...Knowledgeoffeeling...
Knowledge of contact ... Knowledge of the six sense bases … Knowledge of
name-and-form … Knowledge of consciousness … Knowledge of volitional
formations,knowledgeoftheirorigin,knowledgeoftheircessation,knowledge
ofthewayleadingtotheircessation.These,monks,aretheforty-fourcasesof
knowledge.
“Andwhat,monks,isaging-and-death?…[definitionasinTextIX,3§22]
Thus this aging and this death are together called aging-and-death. With the
arisingofbirththereisthearisingofaging-and-death.Withthecessationofbirth
thereisthecessationofaging-and-death.ThisNobleEightfoldPathistheway
leading to the cessation of aging-and-death; that is, right view … right
concentration.
“When,monks,anobledisciplethusunderstandsaging-and-death,itsorigin,
itscessation,andthewayleadingtoitscessation,thisishisknowledgeofthe
principle.
44
By means of this principle that is seen, understood, immediately
attained, fathomed, he applies the method to the past and the future thus:
‘Whateverasceticsandbrahminsinthepastdirectlyknewaging-and-death,its
origin,itscessation,andthewayleadingtoitscessation,allthesedirectlyknew
itintheverysamewaythatIdonow.Whateverasceticsandbrahminsinthe
futurewilldirectlyknowaging-and-death,itsorigin,itscessation,andtheway
leadingtoitscessation,allthesewilldirectlyknowitintheverysamewaythatI
donow.’Thisishisknowledgeofentailment.
45
“When,monks,anobledisciplehaspurifiedandcleansedthesetwokindsof
knowledge—knowledge of the principle and knowledge of entailment—he is
then called a noble disciple who is accomplished in view, accomplished in
vision,whohasarrivedatthistrueDhamma,whoseesthistrueDhamma,who
possessesatrainee’sknowledge,atrainee’strueknowledge,whohasenteredthe
streamoftheDhamma,anobleonewithpenetrativewisdom,onewhostands
squarelybeforethedoortotheDeathless.
“And what, monks, is birth?… What are the volitional formations?…
[definitionsasinTextIX,3]…ThisNobleEightfoldPathisthewayleadingto
thecessationofvolitionalformations;thatis,rightview...rightconcentration.
“When,monks,anobledisciplethusunderstandsvolitionalformations,their
origin, their cessation, and the way leading to their cessation, this is his
knowledgeoftheprinciple.Bymeansofthisprinciplethatisseen,understood,
immediately attained, fathomed, he applies the method to the past and to the
future….Thisishisknowledgeofentailment.
“When,monks,anobledisciplehaspurifiedandcleansedthesetwokindsof
knowledge—knowledge of the principle and knowledge of entailment—he is
then called a noble disciple who is accomplished in view ... one who stands
squarelybeforethedoortotheDeathless.”
(SN12:33;II56–59)
(d)ATeachingbytheMiddle
At Sāvatthī, the Venerable Kaccānagotta approached the Blessed One, paid
homagetohim,satdowntooneside,andsaidtohim:“Venerablesir,itissaid,
‘rightview,rightview.’Inwhatway,venerablesir,isthererightview?”
“This world, Kaccāna, for the most part depends upon a duality—upon the
ideaofexistenceandtheideaofnonexistence.
46
Butforonewhoseestheorigin
oftheworldasitreallyiswithcorrectwisdom,thereisnoideaofnonexistence
in regard to the world. And for one who sees the cessation of the world as it
really is with correct wisdom, there is no idea of existence in regard to the
world.
47
“Thisworld,Kaccāna,isforthemostpartshackledbyengagement,clinging,
and adherence. But this one [with right view] does not become engaged and
cling through that engagement and clinging, mental standpoint, adherence,
underlying tendency; he does not take a stand about ‘my self.’ He has no
perplexityordoubtthatwhatarisesisonlysufferingarising,whatceasesisonly
sufferingceasing.
48
Hisknowledgeaboutthisisindependentofothers.Itisin
thisway,Kaccāna,thatthereisrightview.
“‘All exists’: Kaccāna, this is one extreme. ‘All does not exist’: this is the
secondextreme.Withoutveeringtowardeitheroftheseextremes,theTathāgata
teaches the Dhamma by the middle: ‘With ignorance as condition, volitional
formations [come to be]; with volitional formations as condition,
consciousness….Suchistheoriginofthiswholemassofsuffering.Butwiththe
remainderless fading away and cessation of ignorance comes cessation of
volitional formations; with the cessation of volitional formations, cessation of
consciousness….Suchisthecessationofthiswholemassofsuffering.’”
(SN12:15;II16–17)
(e)TheContinuanceofConsciousness
“Monks,whatoneintendsandwhatoneplansandwhateveronehasatendency
toward:thisbecomesabasisforthecontinuanceofconsciousness.Whenthereis
a basis there is a support for the establishing of consciousness. When
consciousnessisestablishedandhascometogrowth,thereistheproductionof
future renewed existence. When there is the production of future renewed
existence,futurebirth,aging-and-death,sorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,and
despaircometobe.Suchistheoriginofthiswholemassofsuffering.
49
“If, monks, one does not intend and does not plan but still has a tendency
toward something, this becomes a basis for the continuance of consciousness.
Whenthereisabasis,thereisasupportfortheestablishingofconsciousness….
Suchistheoriginofthiswholemassofsuffering.
50
“But,monks,whenonedoesnotintendanddoesnotplananddoesnothavea
tendencytowardanything,nobasisexistsforthecontinuanceofconsciousness.
Whenthereisnobasis,thereisnosupportfortheestablishingofconsciousness.
Whenconsciousnessisunestablishedanddoesnotcometogrowth,thereisno
productionoffuturerenewedexistence.Whenthereisnoproductionoffuture
renewed existence, future birth, aging-and-death, sorrow, lamentation, pain,
dejection, and despair cease. Such is the cessation of this whole mass of
suffering.”
51
(SN12:38;II65–66)
(f)TheOriginandPassingoftheWorld
“Monks,Iwillteachyoutheoriginandthepassingawayoftheworld.Listen
andattendclosely,Iwillspeak.”
“Yes,venerablesir,”themonksreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
“Andwhat,monks,istheoriginoftheworld?Independenceontheeyeand
forms, eye-consciousness arises. The meeting of the three is contact. With
contactascondition,feeling[comestobe];withfeelingascondition,craving;
withcravingascondition,clinging;withclingingascondition,existence;with
existence as condition, birth; with birth as condition, aging-and-death, sorrow,
lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespaircometobe.This,monks,istheorigin
oftheworld.
“Independenceontheearandsounds...Independenceonthenoseandodors
... In dependence on the tongue and tastes ... In dependence on the body and
tactile objects ... In dependence on the mind and mental phenomena, mind-
consciousness arises. The meeting of the three is contact. With contact as
condition,feeling[comestobe];withfeelingascondition,craving;withcraving
ascondition,clinging…existence…birth;withbirthascondition,aging-and-
death,sorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespaircometobe.This,monks,
istheoriginoftheworld.
“Andwhat,monks,isthepassingawayoftheworld?Independenceonthe
eye and forms, eye-consciousness arises. The meeting of the three is contact.
With contact as condition, feeling [comes to be]; with feeling as condition,
craving. But with the remainderless fading away and cessation of that same
cravingcomescessationofclinging;withthecessationofclinging,cessationof
existence;withthecessationofexistence,cessationofbirth;withthecessation
of birth, aging-and-death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair
cease.Suchisthecessationofthiswholemassofsuffering.This,monks,isthe
passingawayoftheworld.
“In dependence on the ear and sounds ... In dependence on the mind and
mental phenomena, mind-consciousness arises. The meeting of the three is
contact. With contact as condition, feeling [comes to be]; with feeling as
condition,craving.Butwiththeremainderlessfadingawayandcessationofthat
samecravingcomescessationofclinging...cessationofexistence...cessation
ofbirth;withthecessationofbirth,aging-and-death,sorrow,lamentation,pain,
dejection, and despair cease. Such is the cessation of this whole mass of
suffering.This,monks,isthepassingawayoftheworld.”
(SN12:44;II73–74)
(5)ByWayoftheFourNobleTruths
(a)TheTruthsofAllBuddhas
“Monks,whateverPerfectlyEnlightenedBuddhasinthepastfullyawakenedto
thingsas they really are, all fully awakened to the Four Noble Truths as they
really are. Whatever Perfectly Enlightened Buddhas in the future will fully
awaken to things as they really are, all will fully awaken to the Four Noble
Truths as they really are. Whatever Perfectly Enlightened Buddhas at present
havefullyawakenedtothingsastheyreallyare,allhavefullyawakenedtothe
FourNobleTruthsastheyreallyare.
“What four? The noble truth of suffering, the noble truth of the origin of
suffering,thenobletruthofthecessationofsuffering,thenobletruthoftheway
leadingto the cessationof suffering.WhateverPerfectlyEnlightenedBuddhas
fullyawakened…willfullyawaken…havefullyawakenedtothingsasthey
reallyare,allhavefullyawakenedtotheseFourNobleTruthsastheyreallyare.
“Therefore, monks, an exertion should be made to understand: ‘This is
suffering.’ An exertion should be made to understand: ‘This is the origin of
suffering.’Anexertionshouldbemadetounderstand:‘Thisisthecessationof
suffering.’Anexertionshouldbemadetounderstand:‘Thisisthewayleadingto
thecessationofsuffering.’”
(SN56:24;V433–34)
(b)TheseFourTruthsAreActual
“Monks,thesefourthingsareactual,unerring,invariable.
52
Whatfour?
“‘Thisis suffering’:this, monks, is actual,unerring, invariable. ‘This is the
originofsuffering’:thisisactual,unerring,invariable.‘Thisisthecessationof
suffering’: this is actual, unerring, invariable. ‘This is the way leading to the
cessationofsuffering’:thisisactual,unerring,invariable.
“Thesefourthings,monks,areactual,unerring,invariable.
“Therefore, monks, an exertion should be made to understand: ‘This is
suffering.’…Anexertionshouldbemadetounderstand:‘Thisisthewayleading
tothecessationofsuffering.’”
(SN56:20;V430–31)
(c)AHandfulofLeaves
OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingatKosambīinasiṃsapāgrove.
ThentheBlessedOnetookupafewsiṃsapāleavesinhishandandaddressed
themonksthus:“Whatdoyouthink,monks,whichismorenumerous:thesefew
leavesthatIhavetakenupinmyhandorthoseinthegroveoverhead?”
“Venerablesir,theleavesthattheBlessedOnehastakenupinhishandare
few,butthoseinthegroveoverheadarenumerous.”
“Sotoo,monks,thethingsIhavedirectlyknownbuthavenottaughtyouare
numerous,whilethethingsIhavetaughtyouarefew.Andwhy,monks,haveI
nottaughtthosemanythings?Becausetheyarewithoutbenefit,irrelevanttothe
fundamentals of the spiritual life, and do not lead to disenchantment, to
dispassion, to cessation, to peace, to direct knowledge, to enlightenment, to
Nibbāna.ThereforeIhavenottaughtthem.
“Andwhat,monks,haveI taught?Ihavetaught:‘This issuffering’;Ihave
taught:‘Thisistheoriginofsuffering’;Ihavetaught:‘Thisisthecessationof
suffering’;Ihavetaught:‘Thisisthewayleadingtothecessationofsuffering.’
Andwhy,monks,haveItaughtthis?Becausethisisbeneficial,relevanttothe
fundamentalsofthespirituallife,andleadstodisenchantment,todispassion,to
cessation,topeace,todirectknowledge,toenlightenment,toNibbāna.Therefore
Ihavetaughtthis.
“Therefore, monks, an exertion should be made to understand: ‘This is
suffering.’…Anexertionshouldbemadetounderstand:‘Thisisthewayleading
tothecessationofsuffering.’”
(SN56:31;V437–38)
(d)BecauseofNotUnderstanding
OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingamongtheVajjiansatKoṭigāma.
TheretheBlessedOneaddressedthemonksthus:“Monks,itisbecauseofnot
understanding and not penetrating the Four Noble Truths that you and I have
roamedandwanderedthroughthislongcourseofsaṃsāra.Whatfour?
“Itis,monks,becauseofnotunderstandingandnotpenetratingthenobletruth
ofsufferingthatyouandIhaveroamedandwanderedthroughthislongcourse
ofsaṃsāra.Itisbecauseofnotunderstandingandnotpenetratingthenobletruth
oftheoriginofsuffering…thenobletruthofthecessationofsuffering…the
nobletruthofthewayleadingtothecessationofsufferingthatyouandIhave
roamedandwanderedthroughthislongcourseofsaṃsāra.
“That noble truth of suffering, monks, has been understood and penetrated.
Thatnobletruthoftheoriginofsufferinghasbeenunderstoodandpenetrated.
That noble truth of the cessation of suffering has been understood and
penetrated.Thatnobletruthofthewayleadingtothecessationofsufferinghas
been understood and penetrated. Craving for existence has been cut off; the
conduit to existence
53
has been destroyed; now there is no more renewed
existence.”
(SN56:21;V431–32)
(e)ThePrecipice
OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingatRājagahaonMountVulture
Peak.ThentheBlessedOneaddressedthemonksthus:“Come,monks,letusgo
toInspirationPeakfortheday’sabiding.”
“Yes, venerable sir,” those monks replied. Then the Blessed One, together
withanumberofmonks,wenttoInspirationPeak.Acertainmonksawthesteep
precipice offInspiration Peak and saidto the Blessed One: “That precipice is
indeed steep, venerable sir; that precipice is extremely frightful. But is there,
venerablesir,aprecipicesteeperandmorefrightfulthanthatone?”
“Thereis,monk.”
“But what precipice, venerable sir, is steeper and more frightful than that
one?”
“Thoseascetics and brahmins, monk,who donot understandas itreally is:
‘This is suffering. This is the origin of suffering. This is the cessation of
suffering.Thisisthewayleadingtothecessationofsuffering’—theydelightin
volitional formations that lead to birth, aging, and death; they delight in
volitional formations that lead to sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and
despair. Delighting in such volitional formations, they generate volitional
formations that lead to birth, aging, and death; they generate volitional
formationsthatleadtosorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair.Having
generatedsuchvolitionalformations, theytumbledownthe precipiceofbirth,
aging,anddeath;theytumbledowntheprecipiceofsorrow,lamentation,pain,
dejection,anddespair.Theyarenotfreedfrombirth,aging,anddeath;notfreed
fromsorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,anddespair;notfreedfromsuffering,
Isay.
“But,monk,thoseasceticsandbrahminswhounderstandasitreallyis:‘This
issuffering’…‘Thisisthewayleadingtothecessationofsuffering’—theydo
notdelightinvolitionalformationsthatleadtobirth,aging,anddeath;theydo
not generate volitional formations that lead to sorrow, lamentation, pain,
dejection,anddespair.Notdelightinginsuchvolitionalformations,theydonot
generatevolitionalformationsthat lead tobirth,aging, anddeath;they donot
generatevolitionalformationsthatleadtosorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,
anddespair.Nothavinggeneratedsuchvolitionalformations,theydonottumble
down the precipice of birth, aging, and death; they do not tumble down the
precipice of sorrow, lamentation, pain, dejection, and despair. They are freed
frombirth,aging,anddeath;freedfromsorrow,lamentation,pain,dejection,and
despair;freedfromsuffering,Isay.
“Therefore, monks, an exertion should be made to understand: ‘This is
suffering.’…Anexertionshouldbemadetounderstand:‘Thisisthewayleading
tothecessationofsuffering.’”
(SN56:42;V448–50)
(f)MakingtheBreakthrough
“Monks,ifanyoneshouldspeakthus:‘Withouthavingmadethebreakthroughto
thenobletruthofsufferingasitreallyis,withouthavingmadethebreakthrough
tothenobletruthoftheoriginofsufferingasitreallyis,withouthavingmade
thebreakthroughtothenobletruthofthecessationofsufferingasitreallyis,
withouthavingmadethebreakthroughtothenobletruthofthewayleadingto
the cessation of suffering as it really is, I will completely make an end to
suffering’—thisisimpossible.
“Just as, monks, if someone should speak thus: ‘Having made a basket of
acacialeavesorofpineneedlesorofmyrobalanleaves,
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Iwillbringwaterora
palm fruit,’ this would be impossible; so too, if anyone should speak thus:
‘Withouthavingmadethebreakthroughtothenobletruthofsufferingasitreally
is…Iwillcompletelymakeanendtosuffering’—thisisimpossible.
“But,monks,ifanyoneshouldspeakthus:‘Havingmadethebreakthroughto
thenobletruthofsufferingasitreallyis,havingmadethebreakthroughtothe
nobletruthoftheoriginofsufferingasitreallyis,havingmadethebreakthrough
tothenobletruthofthecessationofsufferingasitreallyis,havingmadethe
breakthroughtothenobletruthofthewayleadingtothecessationofsuffering
asitreallyis,Iwillcompletelymakeanendtosuffering’—thisispossible.
“Just as, monks, if someone should speak thus: ‘Having made a basket of
lotusleavesorofkinoleavesorofmāluvaleaves,Iwillbringwaterorapalm
fruit,’thiswouldbepossible;sotoo,ifanyoneshouldspeakthus:‘Havingmade
thebreakthroughtothenobletruthofsufferingasitreallyis…Iwillcompletely
makeanendtosuffering’—thisispossible.
“Therefore, monks, an exertion should be made to understand: ‘This is
suffering.’…Anexertionshouldbemadetounderstand:‘Thisisthewayleading
tothecessationofsuffering.’”
(SN56:32;V442–43)
(g)TheDestructionoftheTaints
“Monks,Isaythatthedestructionofthetaintsisforonewhoknowsandsees,
notforonewhodoesnotknowanddoesnotsee.Foronewhoknowswhat,for
one who sees what, does the destruction of the taints come about? The
destruction of the taints comes about for one who knows and sees: ‘This is
suffering.Thisistheoriginofsuffering.Thisisthecessationofsuffering.This
isthewayleadingtothecessationofsuffering.’Itisforonewhoknowsthus,for
onewhoseesthus,thatthedestructionofthetaintscomesabout.
“Therefore, monks, an exertion should be made to understand: ‘This is
suffering.’…Anexertionshouldbemadetounderstand:‘Thisisthewayleading
tothecessationofsuffering.’”
(SN56:25;V434)
5.THEGOALOFWISDOM
(1)WhatisNibbāna?
On one occasion the Venerable Sāriputta was dwelling in Magadha at
Nālakagāma. Then the wanderer Jambukhādaka
55
approached the Venerable
Sāriputta and exchanged greetings with him. When they had concluded their
greetings and cordial talk, he sat down to one side and said to the Venerable
Sāriputta:
“FriendSāriputta,itissaid,‘Nibbāna,Nibbāna.’WhatnowisNibbāna?”
“Thedestructionoflust,thedestructionofhatred,thedestructionofdelusion:
this,friend,iscalledNibbāna.
“But, friend, is there a path, is there a way for the realization of this
Nibbāna?”
“Thereisapath,friend,thereisawayfortherealizationofthisNibbāna.”
“And what, friend, is that path, what is that way for the realization of this
Nibbāna?”
“It is, friend, this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right intention,
rightspeech,rightaction,rightlivelihood,righteffort,rightmindfulness,right
concentration.Thisisthepath,friend,thisisthewayfortherealizationofthis
Nibbāna.”
“Excellentisthepath,friend,excellentisthewayfortherealizationofthis
Nibbāna.Anditisenough,friendSāriputta,fordiligence.”
(SN38:1;IV251–52)
(2)Thirty-ThreeSynonymsforNibbāna
“Monks, I will teach you the unconditioned and the path leading to the
unconditioned.Listen….
“And what, monks, is the unconditioned? The destruction of lust, the
destruction of hatred, the destruction of delusion: this is called the
unconditioned.
“And what, monks, is the path leading to the unconditioned? Mindfulness
directedtothebody:thisiscalledthepathleadingtotheunconditioned.
“Monks,Iwillteachyoutheuninclined…thetaintless…thetruth...thefar
shore...thesubtle...theverydifficulttosee...theunaging...thestable...the
undisintegrating...theunmanifest...theunproliferated
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…thepeaceful...the
deathless ... the sublime ... the auspicious ... the secure .... the destruction of
craving...thewonderful...theamazing...theunailing...theunailingstate...
Nibbāna…theunafflicted...dispassion...purity...freedom...nonattachment...
theisland...theshelter...theasylum...therefuge...thedestinationandthepath
leadingtothedestination.Listen...
“Andwhat,monks,isthedestination?Thedestructionoflust,thedestruction
ofhatred,thedestructionofdelusion:thisiscalledthedestination.
“And what, monks, is the path leading to the destination? Mindfulness
directedtothebody:thisiscalledthepathleadingtothedestination.
“Thus,monks,Ihavetaughtyoutheunconditioned…thedestinationandthe
path leading to the destination. Whatever should be done, monks, by a
compassionateteacheroutofcompassionforhisdisciples,desiringtheirwelfare,
thatIhavedoneforyou.Thesearetherootsoftrees,monks,theseareempty
huts.Meditate,monks,donotbenegligent,lestyou regret itlater.Thisismy
instructiontoyou.”
(SN43:1–44,combined;IV359–73)
(3)ThereIsThatBase
Thus have I heard.At one time the Blessed One was dwelling at Sāvatthī in
Jeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’sPark.NowonthatoccasiontheBlessedOnewas
instructing,rousing,inspiring,and gladdeningthemonks with aDhammatalk
connected with Nibbāna, and those monks were receptive and attentive,
concentratingtheirwholemind,intentonlisteningtotheDhamma.
Then,onrealizingitssignificance,theBlessedOneonthatoccasionuttered
thisinspiredutterance:
“Thereis,monks,thatbasewherethereisneitherearth,norwater,norheat,
norair;neitherthebaseoftheinfinityofspace,northebaseoftheinfinityof
consciousness,northebaseofnothingness,northebaseofneither-perception-
nor-non-perception; neither this world nor another world; neither sun nor
moon.
57
Here,monks,Isaythereisnocoming,nogoing,nostandingstill;no
passing away and no being reborn. It is not established, not moving, without
support.Justthisistheendofsuffering.”
(Ud8:1;80)
(4)TheUnborn
Thus have I heard.At one time the Blessed One was dwelling at Sāvatthī in
Jeta’sGrove,Anāthapiṇḍika’sPark.NowonthatoccasiontheBlessedOnewas
instructing … the monks with a Dhamma talk connected with Nibbāna, and
thosemonkswerereceptive…intentonlisteningtotheDhamma.
Then,onrealizingitssignificance,theBlessedOneonthatoccasionuttered
thisinspiredutterance:
“Thereis,monks,anunborn,unbecome,unmade,unconditioned.If,monks,
therewerenounborn,unbecome,unmade,unconditioned,noescapewouldbe
discernedfromwhatisborn,become,made,conditioned.Butbecausethereisan
unborn, unbecome, unmade, unconditioned, therefore an escape is discerned
fromwhatisborn,become,made,conditioned.”
(Ud8:3;80–81)
(5)TheTwoNibbānaElements
“Thereare,monks,thesetwoNibbānaelements.Whatarethetwo?TheNibbāna
element with residue remaining and the Nibbāna element without residue
remaining.
“Andwhat,monks,istheNibbānaelementwithresidueremaining?Here,a
monkisanarahant,onewhosetaintsaredestroyed,whohaslivedtheholylife,
donewhathadtobedone,laiddowntheburden,reachedhisowngoal,utterly
destroyed the fetters of existence, one completely liberated through final
knowledge.However,hisfive sensefacultiesremainunimpaired, bywhichhe
stillexperienceswhatisagreeableanddisagreeable,stillfeelspleasureandpain.
Itisthedestructionoflust,hatred,anddelusioninhimthatiscalledtheNibbāna
elementwithresidueremaining.
“Andwhat,monks,istheNibbānaelementwithoutresidueremaining?Here,
amonkisanarahant,…onecompletelyliberatedthroughfinalknowledge.For
him,hereinthisverylife,allthatisfelt,notbeingdelightedin,willbecomecool
right here. That, monks, is called the Nibbāna element without residue
remaining.
“These,monks,arethetwoNibbānaelements.”
(It44;38)
(6)TheFireandtheOcean
15. [The wanderer Vacchagotta asked the Blessed One:] “Then does Master
Gotama hold any speculative view at all?” “Vaccha, ‘speculative view’ is
somethingthattheTathāgatahasputaway.FortheTathāgata,Vaccha,hasseen
58
this:‘Suchisform,suchitsorigin,suchitspassingaway;suchisfeeling,such
its origin, such its passing away; such is perception, such its origin, such its
passing away; such are volitional formations, such their origin, such their
passing away; such is consciousness, such its origin, such its passing away.’
Therefore, I say, with the destruction, fading away, cessation, giving up, and
relinquishingofallconceiving,allrumination,allI-making,mine-making,and
the underlying tendency to conceit, the Tathāgata is liberated through not
clinging.”
16. “When a monk’s mind is liberated thus, Master Gotama, where is he
reborn[afterdeath]?”
“‘Isreborn’doesnotapply,Vaccha.”
“Thenheisnotreborn,MasterGotama?”
“‘Isnotreborn’doesnotapply,Vaccha.”
“Thenhebothisrebornandisnotreborn,MasterGotama?”
“‘Bothisrebornandisnotreborn’doesnotapply,Vaccha.”
“Thenheneitherisrebornnorisnotreborn,MasterGotama?”
“‘Neitherisrebornnorisnotreborn’doesnotapply,Vaccha.”
17. “When Master Gotama is asked these four questions, he replies: ‘“Is
reborn”doesnotapply,Vaccha;“isnotreborn”doesnotapply,Vaccha;“bothis
rebornandisnotreborn”doesnotapply,Vaccha;“neitherisrebornnorisnot
reborn”doesnotapply,Vaccha.’HereIhavefallenintobewilderment,Master
Gotama,hereIhavefallenintoconfusion,andthemeasureofconfidenceIhad
gained through previous conversation with Master Gotama has now
disappeared.”
18. “It is enough to cause you bewilderment, Vaccha, enough to cause you
confusion. For this Dhamma, Vaccha, is profound, hard to see and hard to
understand,peacefulandsublime,unattainablebymerereasoning,subtle,tobe
experienced by the wise. It is hard for you to understand it when you hold
another view, accept another teaching, approve of another teaching, pursue a
differenttraining,andfollowadifferentteacher.SoIshallquestionyouabout
thisinreturn,Vaccha.Answerasyouchoose.
19. “What do you think, Vaccha? Suppose a fire were burning before you.
Wouldyouknow:‘Thisfireisburningbeforeme’?”
“Iwould,MasterGotama.”
“Ifsomeoneweretoaskyou,Vaccha:‘Whatdoesthisfireburningbeforeyou
burnindependenceon?’—beingaskedthus,whatwouldyouanswer?”
“Beingaskedthus,MasterGotama,Iwouldanswer:‘Thisfireburningbefore
meburnsindependenceongrassandsticks.’”
“Ifthatfirebeforeyouweretobeextinguished,wouldyouknow:‘Thisfire
beforemehasbeenextinguished’?”
“Iwould,MasterGotama.”
“If someone were to ask you, Vaccha: ‘When that fire before you was
extinguished,towhichdirectiondiditgo:totheeast,thewest,thenorth,orthe
south?’—beingaskedthus,whatwouldyouanswer?”
“Thatdoesnotapply,MasterGotama.Thefireburnedindependenceonits
fuelofgrassandsticks.Whenthatisusedup,ifitdoesnotgetanymorefuel,
beingwithoutfuel,itisreckonedasextinguished.”
20. “So too, Vaccha, the Tathāgata has abandoned that form by which one
describingtheTathāgatamightdescribehim;hehascutitoffattheroot,madeit
like a palm stump, done away with it so that it is no longer subject to future
arising. Liberated from reckoning in terms of form, the Tathāgata is deep,
immeasurable,hardtofathomliketheocean.‘Isreborn’doesnotapply;‘isnot
reborn’doesnotapply;‘bothisrebornandisnotreborn’doesnotapply;‘neither
isreborn nor is not reborn’ does not apply.TheTathāgatahas abandoned that
feeling by which one describing the Tathāgata might describe him … has
abandonedthatperceptionbywhichonedescribingtheTathāgatamightdescribe
him…hasabandonedthosevolitionalformationsbywhichonedescribingthe
Tathāgata might describe him … has abandoned that consciousness by which
one describing the Tathāgatamightdescribe him;he has cut it offat the root,
madeitlikeapalmstump,doneawaywithitsothatitisnolongersubjectto
futurearising.Liberatedfromreckoningintermsofconsciousness,theTathāgata
isdeep,immeasurable,hardtofathomliketheocean.‘Isreborn’doesnotapply;
‘isnotreborn’doesnotapply;‘bothisrebornandisnotreborn’doesnotapply;
‘neither is reborn nor is not reborn’ does not apply.” (from MN 72:
AggivacchagottaSutta;I486–88)
X.ThePlanesofRealization
INTRODUCTION
Thecultivationofwisdom,aswehaveseen,aimsattherealizationofNibbāna.
TheNikāyasstipulateafixedseriesofstagesthroughwhichapersonpasseson
thewaytowardtheattainmentofNibbāna.Inpassingthroughthesestagesone
evolves from an “uninstructed worldling,” blind to the truths of the Dhamma,
intoanarahant,aliberatedone,whohasattainedfullcomprehensionoftheFour
NobleTruthsandrealizedNibbānainthispresentlife.Ihavealreadyreferredto
severalofthesestagesintheearlierchaptersofthisbook.Inthepresentchapter
wewillexploretheminamoresystematicmanner.
OnenteringtheirreversiblepathtotheattainmentofNibbāna,onebecomesa
noble person (ariyapuggala), the word “noble” (ariya) here denoting spiritual
nobility.Therearefourmajortypesofnoblepersons.Eachstageisdividedinto
twophases:thepath(magga)anditsfruition(phala).
1
Inthepathphase,oneis
said to be practicing for the attainment of a particular fruition, which one is
boundtorealizewithinthatsamelife;intheresultantphase,oneissaidtobe
establishedinthatfruition.Thusthefourmajortypesofnoblepersonsactually
comprisefourpairsoreighttypesofnobleindividuals.AsenumeratedinText
X,1(1), these are: (1) one practicing for the realization of the fruit of stream-
entry,(2)thestream-enterer,(3)onepracticingfortherealizationofthefruitof
once-returning,(4)theonce-returner,(5)onepracticingfortherealizationofthe
fruitofnonreturning,(6)thenonreturner,(7)onepracticingforarahantship,(8)
thearahant.TextX,1(2)gradestheseeightaccordingtotherelativestrengthof
theirspiritualfaculties,sothatthoseateachsubsequentstagepossessstronger
faculties than those at the preceding stage. The first seven persons are
collectively known as sekhas, trainees or disciples in the higher training; the
arahantiscalledtheasekha,theonebeyondtraining.
Thefourmainstagesthemselvesaredefinedintwoways:(1)bywayofthe
defilementseradicatedbythepathleadingtothecorrespondingfruit;and(2)by
wayofthedestinyafter deaththatawaitsonewho has realizedthatparticular
fruit.TextX,1(3)givesstandarddefinitionsofthefourtypesthatmentionboth
thedefilementsabandonedandtheirfuturedestiny.
The Nikāyas group the defilements abandoned into a set of ten fetters
(saṃyojana). The stream-enterer abandons the first three fetters: identity view
(sakkāyadiṭṭhi),thatis,theviewofatrulyexistentselfeitherasidenticalwith
thefive aggregates oras existing insome relation to them; doubt (vicikicchā)
about the Buddha, the Dhamma, the Saṅgha, and the training; and thewrong
grasp of rules and observances (sīlabbataparāmāsa ), the belief that mere
externalobservances,particularlyreligiousritualsandasceticpractices,canlead
toliberation.Thestream-entererisassuredofattainingfullenlightenmentinat
mostsevenmoreexistences,whichwillalltakeplaceeitherinthehumanrealm
or the heavenly worlds. The stream-enterer will never undergo an eighth
existenceandisforeverfreedfromrebirthinthethreelowerrealms—thehells,
therealmofafflictedspirits,andtheanimalrealm.
Theonce-returner(sakadāgāmī)doesnoteradicateanynewfetters.Heorshe
has eliminated the three fetters that the stream-enterer has destroyed and
additionallyattenuatesthethreeunwholesomeroots—lust,hatred,anddelusion
—so that they do not arise often and, when they do arise, do not become
obsessive.
2
Asthenameimplies,theonce-returnerwillcomebacktothisworld
onlyonemoretimeandthenmakeanendtosuffering.
The nonreturner (anāgāmī) eradicates the five “lower fetters.” That is, in
addition to the three fetters eliminated by the stream-enterer, the nonreturner
eradicatestwoadditionalfetters,sensuallustandillwill.Becausenonreturners
haveeradicatedsensuallust,theyhavenotiesbindingthemtothesensualrealm
ofexistence. They thus take birth in the form realm (rūpadhātu),generally in
oneoffiveplanescalledthe“pureabodes”(suddhāvāsa)reservedexclusively
for the rebirth of nonreturners. They attain final Nibbāna there, without ever
returningtothesensualrealm.
Thenonreturner,however,isstillboundbythefive“higherfetters”:desirefor
existenceintheformrealm,desireforexistenceintheformlessrealm,conceit,
restlessness, and ignorance. Those who cut off the five higher fetters have no
more ties binding them to conditioned existence. These are the arahants, who
have destroyed all defilements and are “completely liberated through final
knowledge.”
TheFourClassesofNobleDisciplesByWayofFettersEliminatedand
TypesofRebirthRemaining
Classof
disciple
Fettersnewlyeliminated
Remainingtypesof
rebirth
stream-
enterer
identityview,doubt,wronggraspof
rulesandobservances
atmostsevenmore
birthsamong
humansanddevas
once-
returner
none,butweakenslust,hatred,and
delusion
onemorebirthinthe
sensesphererealm
nonreturner sensuallustandillwill spontaneousbirthin
theformrealm
arahant desireforexistenceinformrealm,
desireforformlessexistence,conceit,
restlessness,ignorance
none
Besides the four main classes of noble persons, the Nikāyas sometimes
mention a pair ranked just below the stream-enterer—see Text X,1(3). These
two—called the Dhamma-follower (dhammānusārī) and the faith-follower
(saddhānusārī)—are actually two types belonging to the eighth category of
nobledisciples,thepersonpracticingfortherealizationofthefruitofstream-
entry.The Nikāyas include this pair to show that thoseon the way to stream-
entrycanbedistinguishedintotwoclassesbywayoftheirdominantfaculty.The
Dhamma-followerisoneforwhomwisdomisdominant,thefaith-followerone
forwhomfaithisdominant.Itmaybesignificantthatatthisstagepriortothe
first fruition, it is only faith and wisdom and not the other three faculties—
energy,mindfulness,andconcentration—thatservetodistinguishdisciplesinto
differenttypes.
3
Theexplanationoftheclassesofnobledisciplesfoundintheabovetext,an
extractfromtheAlagaddūpamaSutta(MN22),mayconveytheimpressionthat
allthosewhoattainthesestagesaremonks.This,however,isbynomeansthe
case. The Alagaddūpama extract is worded in this way only because it is
addressedtomonks.TextX,1(4)correctsthisimpressionandprovidesaclearer
pictureofhowtheclassesofnobledisciplesaredistributedamongthegroupsof
theBuddha’sfollowers.Asanabidingstate,arahantshipisreservedformonks
andnuns.Thisdoesnotmeanthatonlymonksandnunscanattainarahantship;
thesuttasandcommentariesdorecordafewcasesoflaydisciplesattainingthe
finalgoal.However,suchdiscipleseitherattainarahantshiponthebrinkofdeath
or enter the monastic order very soon after their attainment. They do not
continue to dwell at home as arahant householders, for dwelling at home is
incompatiblewiththestateofonewhohasseveredallcraving.
Incontrast, nonreturners can continue to dwellas householders. While they
continue to live as lay disciples, they have eradicated sensual desire and thus
necessarilyobservecelibacy.Theyaredescribedas“layfollowers...clothedin
white, leading lives of celibacy, who, with the destruction of the five lower
fetters,willberebornspontaneously[inthepureabodes]andthereattainfinal
Nibbāna without ever returning from that world.” Though the suttas do not
explicitlysaythis,itisreasonabletosupposethatthosedisciplespracticingto
attain the fruit of nonreturning also observe full-time celibacy. Lay stream-
enterersandonce-returners,however,arenotnecessarilycelibate.Inthesuttathe
Buddhadescribesthemas“layfollowers…clothedinwhite,enjoyingsensual
pleasures, who carry out my instruction, respond to my advice, have gone
beyond doubt, become free from perplexity, gained intrepidity, and become
independentofothersintheTeachersdispensation.”Thus,whilesomestream-
enterersandonce-returnersmayobservecelibacy,thisisbynomeanstypicalof
thesetwoclasses.
The Nikāyas occasionally employ another scheme for classifying noble
disciples,onethatmakesthedominantfacultyratherthanthelevelofattainment
alonethebasisfordifferentiation.Themainsourceforthisschemeisapassage
intheKīṭāgiriSuttaincludedhereasTextX,1(5).Thismethodofclassification
divides arahants into two categories: those liberated in both ways
(ubhatobhāgavimutta) and those liberated by wisdom (paññāvimutta). The
formerarecalled“liberatedinbothways”becausetheyareliberatedfromform
bytheirmasteryovertheformlessmeditationsandliberatedfromalldefilements
bytheirattainmentofarahantship.Thosearahants“liberatedbywisdom”have
not mastered the formless attainments but have gained the final fruit by the
poweroftheirwisdomcombinedwithdegreesofconcentrationlowerthanthe
formlessstates.
Thosewhohaveattainedanyofthelowerstages,fromstream-entryuptoand
includingthepathtoarahantship,aredividedintothreecategories.The“body-
witness” (kāyasakkhī) is one at any of these stages who has mastered the
formless attainments; the “one attained-to-view” (diṭṭhippatta), one at any of
these stages who lacks the formless attainments and gives prominence to
wisdom;andthe“oneliberatedbyfaith”(saddhāvimutta),oneatanyofthese
stages who lacks the formless attainments and gives prominence tofaith. The
last two persons in this typology are the Dhamma-follower and the faith-
followerexplainedabove.
Itshouldbenotedthatthisschemedoesnotmentionapersonatthepathof
stream-entrywhopossessestheformlessattainments.Thisshouldnotbetakento
mean that such a type is in principle excluded but only that such a type was
considered irrelevant for purposes of classification. It seems that at this
preparatorystage,theallotmentofaseparatecategorytoonewithoutstanding
skillsinconcentrationwasdeemedunnecessary.
In the selection of texts, I next take up the main types for individual
consideration. I begin with the stream-enterer, but first some preliminary
commentsarenecessary.IntheNikāyas,thegreatmajorityofhumanbeingsare
called“uninstructedworldlings”(assutavāputhujjana).Uninstructedworldlings
have no regard for the Buddha and his teaching, no understanding of the
Dhammaordedicationtothepractice.ThepurposeoftheBuddha’spathisto
leaduninstructedworldlingstotheattainmentoftheDeathless,andthestagesof
realizationarethestepstowardthecompletionofthisprocess.Theprocessof
transformationgenerallybeginswhenoneencounterstheBuddha’steachingand
gainsconfidenceintheBuddhaastheEnlightenedOne.Onemustthenacquirea
clearunderstandingoftheDhamma,undertaketheprecepts,andenteruponthe
systematic practice of the path. In the suttas such a person is called a noble
disciple(ariyasāvaka)inabroadsenseoftheterm,notnecessarilyinthenarrow,
technicalsenseofonewhohasalreadyreachedthepathsandfruits.
Later tradition calls a person who has faith in the Dhamma and aspires to
reach the state of stream-entry a virtuous worldling (kalyāṇaputhujjana). To
reach the attainment of stream-entry, the aspiring disciple should cultivate the
“four factors leading to stream-entry.” As Text X,2(1) explains, these are:
associating with wise and virtuous spiritual guides; listening to the true
Dhamma; attending carefully to things (for example, by way of gratification,
danger, and escape); and practicing in accordance with the Dhamma (by
undertaking the threefold training in moral discipline, concentration, and
wisdom). The peak of the training undertaken by the aspiring disciple is the
development of insight: the thorough contemplation of the aggregates, sense
bases,andelementsasimpermanent,boundupwithsuffering,anddevoidofa
substantialself.Atacertainpoint,wheninsightreachesitspeak,thedisciple’s
understandingwillundergoamajortransition,whichmarkstheentryupon“the
fixedcourseofrightness,”thetrueNobleEightfoldPaththatleadsirreversibly
toNibbāna.AsTextX,2(2)putsit,suchadisciplehasrisenupfromtheplaneof
worldlingsandreachedtheplane of thenobleones.Though notyetastream-
enterer,apersonatthisstagecannotpassawaywithouthavingrealizedthefruit
ofstream-entry.
As we have already seen, among disciples who attain the path there is a
distinction between those who arrive through faith, called faith-followers, and
those who arrive through wisdom, called Dhamma-followers. But while faith-
followersandDhamma-followersdifferbywayoftheirdominantfaculty,they
arealikeinthatbothmustfurthercultivatethepaththeyhaveentered.Oncethey
knowandseetheessenceoftheDhamma—whenthey“obtainthevisionofthe
Dhamma”and“makethebreakthroughtotheDhamma”—theybecomestream-
enterers, bound to reach full enlightenment and attain final Nibbāna in a
maximum of seven more lives; see TextX,2(3). Stream-enterers eradicate the
firstthreefettersandacquiretheeightfactorsoftheNobleEightfoldPath.They
alsohave“fourfactorsofstream-entry”:confirmedconfidenceintheBuddha,
theDhamma,andSaṅgha,and“themoralvirtuesdeartothenobleones,”thatis,
firmadherencetothefiveprecepts;seeTextsX,2(4)–(5).
HavingseenthetruthoftheDhamma,thestream-entererfacesthechallenge
of cultivating this vision in order to eliminate the remaining defilements. The
nextmajormilestone,theattainmentoftheplaneoftheonce-returner,doesnot
eliminateanydefilementscompletely.However,itdoesattenuatethethreeroot
defilements—lust,hatred,anddelusion—toadegreesufficienttoensurethatthe
disciplewillreturnto“thisworld,”thesense-sphererealmofexistence,onlyone
moretimeandthenmakeanendtosuffering.
Adisciplewhoattainseitherofthefirsttwostages,stream-entereroronce-
returner,neednotremainfixedtherebutcanadvancetothetwohigherstages.
Descriptionsofattainment in theNikāyas suggestthat it isalso possiblefor a
virtuousworldlingwithextremelysharpfacultiestoadvancedirectlytothestage
of nonreturner. The state of nonreturner is always said to be attained simply
throughthedestructionofthefivelowerfetters,thethreefetterseradicatedby
the stream-enterer along with sensual lust and ill will. From the Nikāyas, it
appearsthatonewithextremelysharpwisdomcanachievethisstageatasingle
stroke. The commentaries, however, explain that in such a case the person
actuallypasses through the first two paths and fruitsin very quick succession
beforereachingthethirdpathandfruit.
According to Text X,3(1), to abandon the five lower fetters, a monk first
attainsoneofthefourjhānasoroneofthethreelowerformlessattainments;the
constituentfactors of the fourth formless attainment aretoo subtle to serveas
objectsofinsight.Directinghisattentiontothefactorsconstitutingthejhānaor
formlessattainment,
4
hesubsumesthemunderthefiveaggregates:asincluded
in form (omitted in relation to the formless attainments), feeling, perception,
volitionalformations,andconsciousness.Havingdoneso,hecontemplatesthese
factors, now classified into the five aggregates, as marked by the three
characteristics: impermanence, suffering, and nonself (expanded into eleven
headings). As contemplation advances, at a certain point his mind turns away
fromallconditionedthingsandfocusesuponthedeathlesselement,Nibbāna.If
hehassharpfacultiesandcanrelinquishallattachmentsonthespot,heattains
arahantship, the destruction of the taints; but if he cannot yet give up all
attachments,heattainsthestateofnonreturning.
The Buddha recognized differences in the approaches individuals take to
achieving the final goal, and in Text X,3(2) he divides persons into four
categories with respect to its attainment. The four are obtained through the
permutations of two pairs. He first distinguishes disciples on the basis of the
strength of their spiritual faculties. Those with strong faculties reach final
Nibbāna in this very life. Those with relatively weak faculties attain final
Nibbānainthenextlife,andthuspresumablyexpireasnonreturners.Theother
pairdistinguishesdisciplesbytheirmodeofdevelopment.Oneclasstakesthe
“difficult”approach,whichusesmeditationsubjectsthatgeneratesharpwisdom
and lead directly to disenchantment and dispassion. The other class takes the
smoother and more pleasant route leading through thefour jhānas.These two
typescorrespondroughlytothosewhogiveemphasistoinsightandthosewho
giveemphasistoserenity.
A short sutta in the Sotāpattisaṃyutta,Text X,3(3), relates the story of
Dīghāvu,ayouthwhotookthedifficultrouteemphasizinginsighttothestageof
nonreturner.DīghāvuwaslyingonhisdeathbedwhentheBuddhacametohim
andaskedhimtotraininthefourfactorsofstream-entry.Dīghāvusaidthathe
wasalreadyendowedwiththesefactors,indicatingtherebythathewasastream-
enterer.TheBuddhatheninstructedhimtodevelop“sixthingsthatpartakeof
trueknowledge.”HeevidentlyheededtheBuddha’sadvice,forshortlyafterhe
died the Buddha declared him to have expired as a nonreturner. Though it is
possiblethatDīghāvuhadalreadygainedthejhānasandthusdidnotneedtobe
instructed in their practice, it is also possible that he attained the stage of
nonreturnerentirelythroughthepowerofthedeepinsightarisenfromthesesix
contemplations.
Text X,3(4) makes further distinctions among those who attain arahantship
andthestageofnonreturner.Suchsuttaspointtothegreatvarietythatcanexist
evenamongthoseatthesamespirituallevel.Itisbecausehewasabletomake
suchdistinctionsthattheBuddhawassaidtopossessperfectunderstandingof
thediversityinthefacultiesofsentientbeings.
Sincenonreturnershaveeradicatedthefivelowerfetters,theyarenolonger
bound to the sensual realm of existence. However, they are still not entirely
liberatedfromthecycleofrebirthsbutarestillboundbythefivehigherfetters:
desireforexistenceintheformrealm,desireforexistenceintheformlessrealm,
the conceit “I am,” subtle restlessness, and ignorance. The conceit “I am”
(asmim̄na)differsfromidentityview,theviewofself(sakkāyadiṭṭhi),towhichit
ispartlyakin.Theviewofselfaffirmsanenduringselfexistinginrelationtothe
fiveaggregates,eitherasidenticalwiththem,orastheirinnercore,orastheir
owner and master. But the conceit “I am” lacks a clear conceptualcontent. It
lurksatthebaseofthemindasavague,shapeless,butimperioussenseofthe“I”
asaconcretereality.Thoughtheviewofselfisalreadyeliminatedatthestageof
stream-entry,theconceit“Iam”persistsinnobledisciplesevenuptothestage
ofnonreturner.ThisisthepointoftheincisiveKhemakaSutta—TextX,4(1)
withitstwobeautifulsimilesoftheflowersscentandthelaunderedcloth.The
noble disciples differ from ordinary people in that they do not buy into the
conceit “I am.” They recognize the conceit “I am” as a mere figment of the
imagination,afalsenotionthatdoesnotpointtoaself,toatrulyexistent“I.”
Buttheyhavenotcompletelyovercomeit.
The subtle attachment and the residual sense of “I am” that persist in the
nonreturner both stem from ignorance. To reach the end of the path, the
nonreturner must obliterate the remaining segment of ignorance and dispel all
traces of craving and conceit. The criticalpoint when ignorance,craving, and
conceit are eradicated marks the transition from the stage of nonreturner to
arahantship.Thedifferencebetweenthetwocanbeasubtleone,andtherefore
standards for distinguishing them are necessary. In Text X,4(2) the Buddha
proposesseveralcriteriabywhichatraineeandanarahantcandeterminetheir
respectivestandings.Oneofparticularinterestconcernstheirrelationshiptothe
five spiritual faculties: faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom.
Thetraineeseeswithwisdomthegoalinwhichthefacultiesculminate—namely,
Nibbāna—but cannot dwell in it. The arahant sees with wisdom the supreme
goalandcanalsodwellinthatgoal.
Thetextsthatfollowofferdifferentperspectivesonthearahant.TextX,4(3)
characterizes the arahant with a series of metaphors, elucidated in the same
passage.TextX,4(4)enumeratesninethingsthatanarahantcannotdo.InText
X,4(5), the Venerable Sāriputta describes the arahant’s imperturbability in the
faceofpowerfulsenseobjects,andinTextX,4(6)heenumeratesthetenpowers
ofanarahant.TextX,4(7),anexcerptfromtheDhātuvibhaṅgaSutta,beginsas
an account of the attainment of arahantship through the contemplation of the
elements; the relevant passage was included in the previous chapter as Text
IX,4(3)(c). The exposition then turns to the “four foundations” (cattāro
adhiṭṭhāna)ofthearahant,herespokenofas“thesageatpeace”(munisanto).
Text X,4(8), the last in this section, is a poem extolling the arahant’s
distinguishedqualities.
ThefirstandforemostofthearahantsistheBuddhahimself,towhomthelast
sectionofthischapterisdevoted.Thesectionistitled“TheTathāgata,”theword
the Buddha used when referring to himself in his archetypal role as the
discovererandbringerofliberatingtruth.Thewordcanberesolvedintwoways:
taken as tathā āgata, “Thus Come,” it implies that the Buddha has come in
accordance with an established pattern (which the commentaries interpret to
mean the fulfillment of the ten spiritual perfections—the pāramīs—and the
thirty-sevenaidstoenlightenment);takenastathāgata,“ThusGone,”itimplies
that he has gone in accordance with an established pattern (which the
commentaries interpret to mean that he has gone to Nibbāna by the complete
practiceofserenity,insight,thepaths,andthefruits).
Later forms of Buddhism draw extreme distinctions between Buddhas and
arahants,butintheNikāyasthisdistinctionisnotassharpasonemightexpectif
one takes later texts as the benchmark of interpretation. On the one hand, the
Buddha is an arahant, as is evident from the standard verse ofhomage to the
Blessed One (iti pi so bhagavā arahaṃ sammā sambuddho ...); on the other,
arahants are buddha, in the sense that they have attained full enlightenment,
sambodhi, by awakening to the same truths that the Buddha himself realized.
Theproperdistinction,then,isthatbetweenasammāsambuddhaor Perfectly
Enlightened Buddha, and an arahant who has attained enlightenment and
liberationasadisciple(s̄vaka)ofaPerfectlyEnlightenedBuddha.However,to
avoidsuchcomplexlocutions,wewillresorttothecommonpracticeofphrasing
thedistinctionasthatbetweenaBuddhaandanarahant.
Whatthenistherelationshipbetweenthetwo?Isthedifferencebetweenthem
primarily one of temporal sequence, with perhaps a few additional capacities
specifictoaPerfectlyEnlightenedBuddha?Oristhedifferencebetweenthem
so vast that they should be considered distincttypes? The Nikāyas display an
interesting,eventantalizing,ambivalenceonthisquestion,asthetextsincluded
hereillustrate.TextX,5(1)raisesthequestionaboutthedifferencebetween“the
Tathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne”and“amonkliberatedby
wisdom”; apparently the expression bhikkhu paññāvimutta is used here in a
senseapplicabletoanyarahantdiscipleratherthansolelytoonewholacksthe
formless attainments (that is, in an inclusive sense, not as a wisdom-liberated
arahantcontrastedwithaboth-waysliberatedarahant).Theanswerthetextgives
expressesthedifferenceintermsofroleandtemporalpriority.ABuddhahasthe
functionofdiscoveringandexpoundingthepath,andhealsopossessesaunique
familiarity with the intricacies of the path not shared by his disciples. His
disciplesfollowthepathherevealsandattainenlightenmentafterward,underhis
guidance.
ThepolemicalliteratureoflaterBuddhismsometimesdepictstheBuddhaas
motivated by great compassion and his arahant disciples as cool and aloof,
indifferenttothe plightof theirfellowbeings. Asif toforestallthis criticism,
TextX,5(2)statesthatnotonlytheBuddhabutarahantsaswellaslearnedand
virtuousdisciplesstillintrainingariseforthewelfareofmanypeople,livetheir
livesoutofcompassionfortheworld,andteachtheDhammaforthegood,well-
being,andhappinessoftheirfellowbeings,devasaswellashumans.Thus,if
this text is taken as authoritative, it cannot be claimed that compassion and
altruisticconcernarequalitiesthatdistinguishBuddhasfromarahants.
Yet Text X,5(3) gives us another perspective on this question. Here, the
Buddha challenges the Venerable Sāriputta’s “bellowing utterance” by asking
him whether he fully knows the moral discipline, qualities (perhaps
concentration),wisdom,meditativedwellings,andliberationoftheBuddhasof
thepast, present, andfuture. Tothis thegreat disciple canonly answer in the
negative.ButSāriputtadeclaresthatheknowsthatalltheBuddhasofthethree
periodsoftimeattainperfectenlightenmentbyabandoningthefivehindrances,
by establishing their minds in the four establishments of mindfulness, and by
developingcorrectlythesevenfactorsofenlightenment.
These, however, are aspects of the path that Buddhas have fulfilled in
common with arahant disciples. Beyond this, the Buddhas possess certain
qualities that elevate them above even the foremost of the arahants. From the
Nikāyas,theirsuperiorityseemstorestontwomainpillars:first,theirbeingis
essentially“forothers”inawaythatthemostaltruisticofthearahantdisciples
can only emulate but never equal; and second, their knowledges and spiritual
powersaremuchgreaterthanthoseofthearahantdisciples.
The Buddha states that even monks fully liberated in mind, who possess
“unsurpassablevision,practice,andliberation,”veneratetheTathāgata,because
his attainment of enlightenment helps others to attain enlightenment, his
deliverance helps others gain deliverance, his realization of Nibbāna enables
otherstorealizeNibbāna(MN35.26;I235).InTextX,5(4),weencountertwo
setsof qualities considered special endowmentsof a Buddha, enabling him to
“roar his lion’s roar in the assemblies” and set rolling the wheelof Dhamma.
Theseare the tenTathāgata’spowers and thefour grounds ofself-confidence.
Though several of these powers are shared by disciples, in their totality these
twosetsaredistinctiveofaBuddhaandequiphimtoguideandinstructbeings
inaccordancewiththeirindividualaptitudesanddispositions.Thefourgrounds
ofself-confidenceconferupontheBuddhaaboldnessofauthority,amagnitude
of mission, that only the founder of a religion can exercise. Text X,5(5)
comparestheTathāgatatothesunandmoon,forhisappearanceintheworldis
the manifestation of great light and dispels the darkness of ignorance. Text
X,5(6)compareshimtoamanwhorescuesaherdofdeerfromcalamity,thus
portrayinghimasthegreatbenefactorofhumanity.
With Text X,5(7) we return to the metaphor of the lion’s roar, introduced
earlier, with a lengthy simile that compares the Buddha’s proclamation of
universal impermanence to the roar of a lion when he emerges from his den.
LiketheclosingpassageoftheFirstSermon(seeTextII,5),thistextdrawsour
attentiontothecosmicscopeoftheBuddha’smission.Hismessageextendsnot
onlytohumanbeings,butreachesuptothehighheavenlyrealms,shakingthe
delusionsofthedeities.
Finally,TextX,5(8)offersusaseriesofbriefexplanationswhytheBuddhais
calledtheTathāgata.HeiscalledtheTathāgatabecausehehasfullyawakenedto
the nature of the world, its origin, its cessation, and the way to its cessation;
because he has fully comprehended all phenomena within the world, whether
seen,heard,sensed,orcognized;becausehisspeechisinvariablytrue;because
heactsinconformitywithhiswords;andbecausehewieldssuprememastery
withintheworld.Thetextendswithaninspiredpoem,probablyattachedbythe
compilersofthecanon,whichcelebratestheBuddhaasthesupremerefugefor
theworld.
ThepersonaldevotiontowardtheTathāgataexpressedbyboththeprosetext
and the poem introduces us to the warm current of religious feelingthat runs
through Early Buddhism, always present just beneath its cool and composed
exterior. This religious dimension makes the Dhamma more than just a
philosophyoranethicalsystemorabodyofmeditativetechniques.Animatingit
fromwithin,drawingitsfollowersupwardandonward,itmakestheDhammaa
completespiritualpath—apathrootedinfaithinaparticularpersonwhoisat
once the supreme teacher of liberating truth and the foremost example of the
truthheteaches.
X.THEPLANESOFREALIZATION
1.THEFIELDOFMERITFORTHEWORLD
(1)EightPersonsWorthyofGifts
“Monks,theseeightpersonsareworthyofgifts,worthyofhospitality,worthyof
offerings,worthyofreverentialsalutations,theunsurpassedfieldofmeritforthe
world.Whateight?
“The stream-enterer, the one practicing for the realization of the fruit of
stream-entry;theonce-returner,theonepracticingfortherealizationofthefruit
ofonce-returning;thenonreturner,theonepracticingfortherealizationofthe
fruitofthenonreturning;thearahant,theonepracticingforarahantship.
“Monks,theseeightpersonsareworthyofgifts,worthyofhospitality,worthy
ofofferings,worthyofreverentialsalutations,theunsurpassedfieldofmeritfor
theworld.”
(AN8:59;IV292)
(2)DifferentiationbyFaculties
“Monks, there are these five faculties. What five? The faculty of faith, the
facultyof energy, the faculty of mindfulness, the faculty of concentration,the
facultyofwisdom.Thesearethefivefaculties.
“Onewhohascompletedandfulfilledthesefivefacultiesisanarahant.Ifthey
are weaker than that, one is practicing for the realization of the fruit of
arahantship;ifstillweaker,oneisanonreturner;ifstillweaker,oneispracticing
for the realization of the fruit of nonreturning; if still weaker, one is a once-
returner;ifstillweaker,oneispracticingfortherealizationofthefruitofonce-
returning;ifstillweaker,oneisastream-enterer;ifstillweaker,oneispracticing
fortherealizationofthefruitofstream-entry.
“But,monks,Isaythatoneinwhomthesefivefacultiesarecompletelyand
totallyabsentis‘anoutsider,onestandingamidtheworldlings.’”
(SN48:18;V202)
(3)IntheDhammaWellExpounded
42.“Monks,theDhammawellexpoundedbymethusisclear,open,evident,and
freeofpatchwork.IntheDhammawellexpoundedbymethus,whichisclear,
open,evident,andfreeofpatchwork,thosemonkswhoarearahantswithtaints
destroyed—who have lived the spiritual life, done what had to be done, laid
down the burden, reached their own goal, utterly destroyed the fetters of
existence,andarecompletelyliberatedthroughfinalknowledge—havenoround
formanifestation.
5
43. “Monks, the Dhamma well expounded by me thus is clear ... free of
patchwork.IntheDhammawellexpoundedbymethus,thosemonkswhohave
abandonedthefivelowerfettersareallduetoberebornspontaneously[inthe
pure abodes] and there attain final Nibbāna, without ever returning from that
world.
6
44. “Monks, the Dhamma well expounded by me thus is clear ... free of
patchwork.IntheDhammawellexpoundedbymethus,thosemonkswhohave
abandoned three fetters and attenuated lust, hate, and delusion are all once-
returners,returningoncetothisworldtomakeanendofsuffering.
45. “Monks, the Dhamma well expounded by me thus is clear ... free of
patchwork.IntheDhammawellexpoundedbymethus,thosemonkswhohave
abandoned three fetters are all stream-enterers, no longer bound to the lower
world,fixedindestiny,withenlightenmentastheirdestination.
7
46. “Monks, the Dhamma well expounded by me thus is clear … free of
patchwork.IntheDhammawellexpoundedbymethus,thosemonkswhoare
Dhamma-followers or faith-followers all have enlightenment as their
destination.
8
47.“Monks,theDhammawellexpoundedbymethusisclear,open,evident,
andfreeofpatchwork.IntheDhammawellexpoundedbymethus,thosewho
have sufficient faith in me, sufficient love for me, all have heaven as their
destination.”
9
(fromMN22:AlagaddūpamaSutta;I140–42)
(4)TheCompletenessoftheTeaching
6.“Whenamonkhasabandonedcraving,cutitoffattheroot,madeitlikea
palmstump,doneawaywithitsothatitisnolongersubjecttofuturearising,
thatmonkisanarahantwithtaintsdestroyed,onewhohaslivedthespirituallife,
donewhathadtobedone,laiddowntheburden,reachedhisowngoal,utterly
destroyed the fetters of existence, and is completely liberated through final
knowledge.”
7.“ApartfromMasterGotama,isthereanymonk,MasterGotama’sdisciple,
whobyrealizingitforhimselfwithdirectknowledge,inthispresentlifeenters
uponanddwellsintheliberationofmind,liberationbywisdom,thatistaintless
withthedestructionofthetaints?”
10
“There are, Vaccha, not only one hundred, or two or three or four or five
hundred,butfarmoremonks,mydisciples,whobyrealizingitforthemselves
withdirectknowledge,inthispresentlifeenteruponanddwellintheliberation
ofmind,liberationbywisdom,thatistaintlesswiththedestructionofthetaints.”
8. “Apart from Master Gotama and the monks, is there any nun, Master
Gotama’sdisciple,whobyrealizingitforherselfwithdirectknowledge,inthis
present life enters upon and dwells in the liberation of mind, liberation by
wisdom,thatistaintlesswiththedestructionofthetaints?”
“Therearenotonlyonehundred...or fivehundred,butfarmorenuns,my
disciples, who by realizing it for themselves with direct knowledge, in this
presentlifeenteruponanddwellintheliberationofmind,liberationbywisdom,
thatistaintlesswiththedestructionofthetaints.”
9.“ApartfromMasterGotamaandthemonksandnuns,isthereanymalelay
follower, MasterGotama’sdisciple,clothedinwhiteleading alifeofcelibacy
who,withthedestructionofthefivelowerfetters,willberebornspontaneously
[inthepureabodes]andthereattainfinalNibbānawithouteverreturningfrom
thatworld?”
11
“There are not only one hundred ... or five hundred, butfar more male lay
followers,mydisciples,clothedinwhiteleadinglivesofcelibacywho,withthe
destructionofthefivelowerfetters,willberebornspontaneously[inthepure
abodes]andthereattainfinalNibbānawithouteverreturningfromthatworld.”
10. “Apart from Master Gotama, the monks and nuns, and the male lay
followers clothed in white leading lives of celibacy, is there any male lay
follower,MasterGotama’sdisciple,clothedinwhiteenjoyingsensualpleasures,
whocarriesouthisinstruction,respondstohisadvice,hasgonebeyonddoubt,
become free from perplexity, gained intrepidity, and become independent of
othersintheTeachersdispensation?”
12
“There are not only one hundred ... or five hundred, butfar more male lay
followers,mydisciples,clothedinwhiteenjoyingsensualpleasures,whocarry
outmyinstruction,respondtomyadvice,havegonebeyonddoubt,becomefree
from perplexity, gained intrepidity, and become independent of others in the
Teachersdispensation.”
11. “Apart from Master Gotama, the monks and nuns, and the male lay
followers clothed in white, both those leading lives of celibacy and those
enjoyingsensual pleasures,is thereany female lay follower, Master Gotama’s
disciple,clothedinwhiteleadingalifeofcelibacywho,withthedestructionof
the five lower fetters, will be reborn spontaneously [in the pure abodes] and
thereattainfinalNibbānawithouteverreturningfromthatworld?”
“Therearenotonlyonehundred...orfivehundred,butfarmorefemalelay
followers,mydisciples,clothedinwhiteleadinglivesofcelibacywho,withthe
destructionofthefivelowerfetters,willberebornspontaneously[inthepure
abodes]andthereattainfinalNibbānawithouteverreturningfromthatworld.”
12. “Apart from Master Gotama, the monks and nuns, and the male lay
followers clothed in white, both those leading lives of celibacy and those
enjoyingsensualpleasures,andthefemalelayfollowersclothedinwhiteleading
livesofcelibacy,isthereanyonefemalelayfollower,MasterGotama’sdisciple,
clothed in white enjoying sensual pleasures, who carries out his instruction,
responds to his advice, has gone beyond doubt, become free from perplexity,
gained intrepidity, and become independent of others in the Teachers
dispensation?”
“Therearenotonlyonehundred...orfivehundred,butfarmorefemalelay
followers,mydisciples,clothedinwhiteenjoyingsensualpleasures,whocarry
outmyinstruction,respondtomyadvice,havegonebeyonddoubt,becomefree
of perplexity, gained intrepidity, and become independent of others in the
Teachersdispensation.”
13. “Master Gotama, if only Master Gotama were accomplished in this
Dhamma, but no monks were accomplished, then this spiritual life would be
deficient in that respect; but because Master Gotama and monks are
accomplishedinthisDhamma,thisspirituallifeisthuscompleteinthatrespect.
IfonlyMasterGotamaandmonkswereaccomplishedinthisDhamma,butno
nuns were accomplished, then this spiritual life would be deficient in that
respect;butbecauseMasterGotama,monks,andnunsareaccomplishedinthis
Dhamma, this spiritual life is thus complete in that respect. If only Master
Gotama,monks,andnunswereaccomplishedinthisDhamma,butnomalelay
followersclothedinwhiteleadinglivesofcelibacywereaccomplished,thenthis
spiritual life would be deficient in that respect; but because Master Gotama,
monks and nuns, and male lay followers clothed in white leading lives of
celibacyareaccomplishedinthisDhamma,thisspirituallifeisthuscompletein
that respect. If only Master Gotama, monks and nuns, and male lay followers
clothedinwhiteleadinglivesofcelibacywereaccomplishedinthisDhamma,
but no male lay followers clothed in white enjoying sensual pleasures were
accomplished, then this spiritual life would be deficient in that respect; but
because Master Gotama, monks and nuns, and male lay followers clothed in
white,boththoseleadinglivesofcelibacyandthoseenjoyingsensualpleasures,
are accomplished in this Dhamma, this spiritual life is thus complete in that
respect.IfonlyMasterGotama,monksandnuns,andmalelayfollowersclothed
in white ... were accomplished in this Dhamma, but no female lay followers
clothedinwhiteleadinglivesofcelibacywereaccomplished,thenthisspiritual
lifewouldbedeficientinthatrespect;butbecauseMasterGotama,monksand
nuns,malelayfollowersclothedinwhite...andfemalelayfollowersclothedin
whiteleadinglivesofcelibacyareaccomplishedinthisDhamma,thisspiritual
lifeisthus completein that respect.If onlyMaster Gotama, monksand nuns,
malelayfollowersclothedinwhite...andfemalelayfollowersclothedinwhite
leadinglivesofcelibacywereaccomplishedinthisDhamma,butnofemalelay
followersclothedinwhiteenjoyingsensualpleasureswereaccomplished,then
thisspirituallifewouldbedeficientinthatrespect;butbecauseMasterGotama,
monksandnuns,malelayfollowersclothedinwhite,boththoseleadinglivesof
celibacyandthoseenjoyingsensualpleasures,andfemalelayfollowersclothed
in white, both those leading lives of celibacy and those enjoying sensual
pleasures,areaccomplishedinthisDhamma,thisspirituallifeisthuscomplete
inthatrespect.
14.“JustastheriverGangesinclinestowardthesea,slopestowardthesea,
flowstowardthesea,andreachesthesea,sotooMasterGotama’sassemblywith
itshomelessonesanditshouseholdersinclinestowardNibbāna,slopestoward
Nibbāna,flowstowardNibbāna,andreachesNibbāna.”
(fromMN73:MahāvacchagottaSutta;I490–93)
(5)SevenKindsofNoblePersons
11. “Monks, I do not say of all monks that they still have work to do with
diligence; nor do I say of allmonks thatthey have no more work to do with
diligence.
12.“Idonotsayofthosemonkswhoarearahantswithtaintsdestroyed,who
havelived thespirituallife, donewhat hadto be done, laid down the burden,
reached their own goal, utterly destroyed the fetters of existence, and are
completely liberated through final knowledge, that they still have work to do
withdiligence.Whyisthat?Theyhavedonetheirworkwithdiligence;theyare
nomorecapableofbeingnegligent.
13.“Isayofthosemonkswhoaretrainees,whosemindshavenotyetreached
thegoal, andwho arestill aspiringto theunsurpassed securityfrom bondage,
thattheystillhaveworktodowithdiligence.Whyisthat?Becausewhenthose
venerableones make use of suitable lodgings and associate with good friends
andnurturetheirspiritualfaculties,theymay,byrealizingitforthemselveswith
directknowledge,inthispresentlifeenteruponanddwellinthatsupremegoal
of the spiritual life for the sake of which clansmen rightly go forth from the
homelifeintohomelessness.Seeingthisfruitofdiligenceforthesemonks,Isay
thattheystillhaveworktodowithdiligence.
14. “Monks, there are seven kinds of persons to be found existing in the
world. What seven? They are: one liberated-in-both ways, one liberated-by-
wisdom, a body-witness, one attained-to-view, one liberated-by-faith, a
Dhamma-follower,andafaith-follower.
15. “What kind of person is one liberated-in-both-ways? Here some person
contacts with the body and dwells in those liberations that are peaceful and
formless, transcending forms, and his taints are destroyed by his seeing with
wisdom.Thiskindofpersoniscalledoneliberated-in-both-ways.
13
Idonotsay
ofsuchamonkthathestillhasworktodowithdiligence.Whyisthat?Hehas
donehisworkwithdiligence;heisnomorecapableofbeingnegligent.
16.“Whatkindofpersonisoneliberated-by-wisdom?Heresomepersondoes
notcontact with the body and dwellin those liberations that are peaceful and
formless, transcending forms, but his taints are destroyed by his seeing with
wisdom.Thiskindofpersoniscalledoneliberated-by-wisdom.
14
Idonotsayof
sucha monk thathe still has work to do with diligence.Why is that?He has
donehisworkwithdiligence;heisnomorecapableofbeingnegligent.
17.“Whatkindofpersonisabody-witness?Heresomepersoncontactswith
the body and dwells in those liberations that are peaceful and formless,
transcending forms, and some of his taints are destroyed by his seeing with
wisdom.Thiskindofpersoniscalledabody-witness.
15
Isay ofsucha monk
that he still has work to do with diligence. Why is that? Because when that
venerableonemakesuseofsuitablelodgingsandassociateswithgoodfriends
andnurtureshisspiritualfaculties,hemay,byrealizingitforhimselfwithdirect
knowledge,inthispresentlifeenteruponanddwellinthatsupremegoalofthe
spirituallifeforthesakeofwhichclansmenrightlygoforthfromthehomelife
intohomelessness.Seeingthisfruitofdiligenceforsuchamonk,Isaythathe
stillhasworktodowithdiligence.
18.“Whatkindofpersonisoneattained-to-view?Heresomepersondoesnot
contact with the body and dwell in those liberations that are peaceful and
formless,transcendingforms,butsomeofhistaintsaredestroyedbyhisseeing
with wisdom, and he has reviewed and examined with wisdom the teachings
proclaimed by the Tathāgata. This kind of person is called one attained-to-
view.
16
Isayofsuchamonkthathestillhasworktodowithdiligence.Whyis
that?Becausewhenthatvenerableone...intohomelessness.Seeingthisfruitof
diligenceforsuchamonk,Isaythathestillhasworktodowithdiligence.
19. “What kind of person is one liberated-by-faith? Here some person does
notcontact with the body and dwellin those liberations that are peaceful and
formless,transcendingforms,butsomeofhistaintsaredestroyedbyhisseeing
withwisdom,andhisfaithisplanted,rooted,andestablishedintheTathāgata.
Thiskindofpersoniscalledoneliberated-by-faith.
17
Isayofsuchamonkthat
hestillhasworktodowithdiligence.Whyisthat?Becausewhenthatvenerable
one...intohomelessness.Seeingthisfruitofdiligenceforsuchamonk,Isay
thathestillhasworktodowithdiligence.
20.“WhatkindofpersonisaDhamma-follower?Heresomepersondoesnot
contact with the body and dwell in those liberations that are peaceful and
formless,transcendingforms,andhistaintsarenotyetdestroyedbyhisseeing
withwisdom,butthoseteachingsproclaimedbytheTathāgataareacceptedafter
beingponderedtoasufficientdegreewithwisdom.Furthermore,hehasthese
qualities: the faith faculty, the energy faculty, the mindfulness faculty, the
concentration faculty, and the wisdom faculty. This kind of person is called a
Dhamma-follower.
18
I say of such a monk that he still has work to do with
diligence.Whyisthat?Becausewhenthatvenerableone...intohomelessness.
Seeingthisfruitofdiligenceforsuchamonk,Isaythathestillhasworktodo
withdiligence.
21. “What kind of person is a faith-follower? Here some person does not
contact with the body and dwell in those liberations that are peaceful and
formless,transcendingforms,andhistaintsarenotyetdestroyedbyhisseeing
with wisdom, yet he has sufficient faith in and love for the Tathāgata.
Furthermore, he has these qualities: the faith faculty, the energy faculty, the
mindfulnessfaculty,theconcentrationfaculty,andthewisdomfaculty.Thiskind
ofpersoniscalledafaith-follower.Isayofsuchamonkthathestillhasworkto
dowithdiligence.Whyisthat?Becausewhenthatvenerableonemakesuseof
suitable lodgings and associates with good friends and nurtures his spiritual
faculties, he may, by realizing it for himself with direct knowledge, in this
presentlifeenteruponanddwellinthatsupremegoalofthespirituallifeforthe
sakeofwhichclansmenrightlygoforthfromthehomelifeintohomelessness.
Seeingthisfruitofdiligenceforsuchamonk,Isaythathestillhasworktodo
withdiligence.”
(fromMN70:KīṭāgiriSutta;I477–79)
2.STREAM-ENTRY
(1)TheFourFactorsLeadingtoStream-Entry
The Blessed One said to the Venerable Sāriputta: “Sāriputta, it is said: ‘A
factor for stream-entry, a factor for stream-entry.’ What now, Sāriputta, is a
factorforstream-entry?”
“Associationwithsuperiorpersons,venerablesir,isafactorforstream-entry.
Hearing the true Dhamma is a factor for stream-entry. Careful attention is a
factorforstream-entry.PracticeinaccordancewiththeDhammaisafactorfor
stream-entry.”
“Good,good,Sāriputta!Itisasyousay.Sāriputta,itissaid:‘Thestream,the
stream.’Whatnowisthestream?”
“This Noble Eightfold Path, venerable sir, is the stream; that is, right view,
right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right
mindfulness,rightconcentration.”
“Good,good,Sāriputta!Itisasyousay.Sāriputta,itissaid:‘Astream-enterer,
astream-enterer.’Whatnowisastream-enterer?”
“One who possesses this Noble Eightfold Path, venerable sir, is called a
stream-enterer:thisvenerableoneofsuchanameandclan.”
“Good, good, Sāriputta! One who possesses this Noble Eightfold Path is a
stream-enterer:thisvenerableoneofsuchanameandclan.”
(SN55:5;V410–11)
(2)EnteringtheFixedCourseofRightness
“Monks,theeyeisimpermanent,changing,undergoingalteration.Theear...
The nose ... The tongue ... The body ... The mind is impermanent, changing,
undergoingalteration.Onewhoplacesfaithintheseteachingsandresolveson
them thus is called a faith-follower, one who has entered the fixed course of
rightness,
19
enteredtheplaneofsuperiorpersons,transcendedtheplaneofthe
worldlings.Heisincapableofdoinganydeedbyreasonofwhichhemightbe
reborn in hell, in the animal realm, or in the domain of afflictedspirits; he is
incapableofpassingawaywithouthavingrealizedthefruitofstream-entry.
20
“Oneforwhom theseteachingsareaccepted thusafterbeing pondered toa
sufficient degree with wisdom is called a Dhamma-follower, one who has
entered the fixed course of rightness, entered the plane of superior persons,
transcendedtheplaneoftheworldlings.Heisincapableofdoinganydeedby
reasonofwhichhemightbereborninhell,intheanimalrealm,orinthedomain
ofafflictedspirits;heisincapableofpassingawaywithouthavingrealizedthe
fruitofstream-entry.
“Onewhoknowsandseestheseteachingsthusiscalledastream-enterer,no
longer bound to the lower world, fixed in destiny, with enlightenment as his
destination.”
21
(SN25:1;III225)
(3)TheBreakthroughtotheDhamma
TheBlessedOnetookupalittlebitofsoilinhisfingernailandaddressedthe
monksthus:
“Monks,what doyou think, whichis more:the littlebit ofsoil that Ihave
takenupinmyfingernailorthisgreatearth?”
“Venerablesir,thegreatearthismore.ThelittlebitofsoilthattheBlessed
Onehastakenupinhisfingernailistrifling.Itdoesnotamounttoahundredth
part,orathousandthpart,orahundredthousandthpartofthegreatearth.”
“Sotoo,monks,foranobledisciple,apersonaccomplishedinviewwhohas
madethebreakthrough,thesufferingthathasbeendestroyedandeliminatedis
more, while that which remains is trifling. The latter does not amount to a
hundredthpart,orathousandthpart,orahundredthousandthpartoftheformer
mass of suffering that has been destroyed and eliminated, since there is a
maximumofsevenmorelives.Ofsuchgreatbenefit,monks,isthebreakthrough
totheDhamma,ofsuchgreatbenefitisittoobtainthevisionoftheDhamma.”
22
(SN13:1;II133–34)
(4)TheFourFactorsofaStream-Enterer
“Monks, a noble disciple who possesses four things is a stream-enterer, no
longer bound to the lower world, fixed in destiny, with enlightenment as his
destination.
“Whatfour?Here,monks,anobledisciplepossessesconfirmedconfidence
23
in the Buddha thus: ‘The Blessed One is an arahant, perfectly enlightened,
accomplished in true knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of theworld,
unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the
EnlightenedOne,theBlessed One.’He possessesconfirmedconfidence in the
Dhammathus: ‘The Dhamma is well expounded by the Blessed One, directly
visible,immediate,inviting oneto come and see, worthyof application,to be
personallyexperiencedbythewise.’Hepossessesconfirmedconfidenceinthe
Saṅghathus:‘TheSaṅghaoftheBlessedOne’sdisciplesispracticingthegood
way, practicingthestraightway,practicingthetrueway,practicingtheproper
way; that is, the four pairs of persons, the eight types of individuals—this
SaṅghaoftheBlessedOne’sdisciplesisworthyofgifts,worthyofhospitality,
worthy of offerings, worthy of reverential salutation, the unsurpassed field of
merit for the world.’ He possesses the moral virtues dear to the noble ones,
unbroken, untorn, unblemished, unmottled, freeing, praised by the wise,
ungrasped,leadingtoconcentration.
“Anobledisciple,monks,whopossessesthesefourthingsisastream-enterer,
nolongerboundtothelowerworld,fixedindestiny,withenlightenmentashis
destination.”
(SN55:2;V343–44)
(5)BetterthanSovereigntyovertheEarth
“Monks, although a wheel-turning monarch, having exercised supreme
sovereigntyoverthefourcontinents,withthebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,is
reborninagooddestination,inaheavenlyworld,inthecompanyofthedevasof
theTāvatiṃsarealm,andthereintheNandanaGrove,accompaniedbyaretinue
ofcelestialnymphs,heenjoyshimselfsuppliedandendowedwiththefivecords
ofcelestialsensualpleasure,still,ashedoesnotpossessfourthings,heisnot
freedfromhell,theanimalrealm,andthedomainofafflictedspirits,notfreed
from the plane of misery, the bad destinations, the lower world.
24
Although,
monks,anobledisciplemaintainshimselfbylumpsofalmsfoodandwearsrag-
robes,still,ashepossessesfourthings,heisfreedfromhell,theanimalrealm,
and the domain of afflicted spirits, freed from the plane of misery, the bad
destinations, the lower world. What four things? Confirmed confidence in the
Buddha,theDhamma,andtheSaṅgha,andthemoralvirtuesdeartothenoble
ones.And,monks,betweentheobtainingofsovereigntyoverthefourcontinents
andtheobtainingofthefourthings,theobtainingofsovereigntyoverthefour
continentsisnotworthasixteenthpartoftheobtainingofthefourthings.”
(SN55:1;V342)
3.NONRETURNING
(1)AbandoningtheFiveLowerFetters
7.“Thereisapathandway,Ānanda,totheabandoningofthefivelowerfetters.
That anyone, without relying on that path and way, might know or see or
abandonthefivelowerfetters—thisisnotpossible.Justaswhenthereisagreat
treestandingpossessedofheartwood,itisnotpossiblethatanyonemightcutout
itsheartwoodwithoutcuttingthroughitsbarkandsapwood,sotoo,inthecase
ofabandoningthefivelowerfetters.
“Thereisapathandway,Ānanda,totheabandoningofthefivelowerfetters.
That someone, by relying on that path and way, might know and see and
abandonthefivelowerfetters—thisispossible.Justas,whenthereisagreattree
standingpossessedof heartwood, itispossible thatsomeonemight cut outits
heartwood by cutting through its bark and sapwood, so too, in the case of
abandoningthefivelowerfetters.
8.“Suppose,Ānanda,theriverGangeswerefullofwaterrightuptothebrim
so that crows could drink from it, and then a feeble man came thinking: ‘By
swimmingacrossthestreamwithmyarms,Ishallgetsafelyacrosstothefurther
shoreofthisriverGanges’;yethewouldnotbeabletogetsafelyacross.Sotoo,
whentheDhammaisbeingtaughttosomeoneforthecessationofidentity,ifhis
minddoes not enterinto it andacquire confidence, steadiness,and resolution,
thenhecanberegardedaslikethefeebleman.
25
“Suppose,Ānanda,theriverGangeswerefullofwaterrightuptothebrimso
that crows could drink from it, and then a strong man came thinking: ‘By
swimmingacrossthestreamwithmyarms,Ishallgetsafelyacrosstothefurther
shoreofthisriverGanges’;andhewouldbeabletogetsafelyacross.Sotoo,
whentheDhammaisbeingtaughttosomeoneforthecessationofidentity,ifhis
mindentersintoitandacquiresconfidence,steadiness,andresolution,thenhe
canberegardedaslikethestrongman.
9.“Andwhat,Ānanda,isthepathandwaytotheabandoningofthefivelower
fetters? Here, with seclusion from acquisitions,
26
with the abandoning of
unwholesomestates,withthecompletetranquilizingofbodilyinertia,secluded
fromsensualpleasures,secludedfromunwholesomestates,amonkentersand
dwellsinthefirstjhāna,whichisaccompaniedbythoughtandexamination,with
raptureandhappinessbornofseclusion.
“Whatever exists therein of form, feeling, perception, volitional formations,
and consciousness, he sees those states as impermanent, as suffering, as a
disease, as a tumor, as a barb, as a calamity, as an affliction, as alien, as
disintegrating,asempty,asnonself.
27
Heturnshismindawayfromthosestates
anddirectsittowardthedeathlesselementthus:‘Thisisthepeaceful,thisisthe
sublime, that is, the stilling of all formations, the relinquishing of all
acquisitions,thedestructionofcraving,dispassion,cessation,Nibbāna.’
28
Ifhe
issteadyinthat,heattainsthedestructionofthetaints.Butifhedoesnotattain
thedestructionofthetaints,thenthroughthatverydesirefortheDhamma,that
delightintheDhamma,withthedestructionofthefivelowerfettershebecomes
oneduetobe reborn spontaneously[inthepure abodes] andthereattainfinal
Nibbānawithouteverreturningfromthatworld.
29
Thisisthepathandwayto
theabandoningofthefivelowerfetters.
10–12.“Again,withthesubsidingofthoughtandexamination,amonkenters
and dwells in the second jhāna.… Again, with the fading away as well of
rapture, a monk … enters and dwells in the third jhāna.… Again, with the
abandoningofpleasureandpain…amonkentersanddwellsinthefourthjhāna,
which has neither-pain-nor-pleasure and purity of mindfulness due to
equanimity.
“Whatever exists therein of form, feeling, perception, volitional formations,
andconsciousness,heseesthosestatesasimpermanent...asnonself.Heturns
hismindawayfromthosestatesanddirectsittowardthedeathlesselement…
Thisisthepathandwaytotheabandoningofthefivelowerfetters.
13.“Again,withthecompletetranscendingofperceptionsofforms,withthe
passing away of perceptions of sensory impingement, with nonattention to
perceptionsofdiversity,awarethat‘spaceisinfinite,’amonkentersuponand
dwellsinthebaseoftheinfinityofspace.
“Whatever exists therein of feeling, perception, volitional formations, and
consciousness,
30
heseesthosestatesasimpermanent…asnonself.Heturnshis
mindawayfromthosestatesanddirectsittowardthedeathlesselement…This
isthepathandwaytotheabandoningofthefivelowerfetters.
14. “Again, by completely transcending the base of the infinity of space,
awarethat‘consciousnessisinfinite,’amonkentersuponanddwellsinthebase
oftheinfinityofconsciousness.
“Whatever exists therein of feeling, perception, volitional formations, and
consciousness,heseesthosestatesasimpermanent…asnonself.Heturnshis
mindawayfromthosestatesanddirectsittowardthedeathlesselement…This
isthepathandwaytotheabandoningofthefivelowerfetters.
15. “Again, by completely transcending the base of the infinity of
consciousness,awarethat‘thereisnothing,’amonkentersuponanddwellsin
thebaseofnothingness.
“Whatever exists therein of feeling, perception, volitional formations, and
consciousness,heseesthosestatesasimpermanent,assuffering,asadisease,as
atumor,asabarb,asacalamity,asanaffliction,asalien,asdisintegrating,as
void,asnonself.Heturnshismindawayfromthosestatesanddirectsittoward
thedeathlesselementthus:‘Thisisthepeaceful,thisisthesublime,thatis,the
stillingofallformations,therelinquishingofallacquisitions,thedestructionof
craving, dispassion, cessation, Nibbāna.’ If he is steady in that, he attains the
destructionofthetaints.Butifhedoesnotattainthedestructionofthetaints,
thenthroughthatverydesirefortheDhamma,thatdelightintheDhamma,with
the destruction of the five lower fetters he becomes one due to be reborn
spontaneously[inthepureabodes]andthereattainfinalNibbānawithoutever
returningfromthatworld.Thisisthepathandwaytotheabandoningofthefive
lowerfetters.”
(fromMN64:MahāmāluṅkyaSutta;I434–37)
(2)FourKindsofPersons
“Thereare,Omonks,fourkindsofpersonsfoundexistingintheworld.What
four?
“Here, monks, in this very life a person attains Nibbāna through volitional
exertion. Here, with the breakup of the body, a person attains final Nibbāna
throughvolitionalexertion.Here,inthisverylifeapersonattainsfinalNibbāna
withoutvolitionalexertion.Here,withthebreakupofthebody,apersonattains
finalNibbānawithoutvolitionalexertion.
“And how, monks, does a person, in this very life, attain Nibbānathrough
volitionalexertion?Here,amonkdwellscontemplatingtheunattractivenessof
thebody,perceivingrepulsivenessinfood,perceivingdiscontentwiththeentire
world, contemplating impermanence in all formations; and the perception of
deathiswellestablishedwithinhim.
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Hedwellsrelyinguponthesefivepowers
ofatrainee:thepowersoffaith,moralshame,fearofwrongdoing,energy,and
wisdom.Thesefivefacultiesareextremelystronginhim:thefacultiesoffaith,
energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. Because of the strength of
these five faculties, in this very life he attains Nibbāna through volitional
exertion. This is how a person, in this very life, attains Nibbāna through
volitionalexertion.
“Andhow,monks,doesaperson,withthebreakupofthebody,attainNibbāna
through volitional exertion? Here, a monk dwells contemplating the
unattractivenessofthebody ...andthe perceptionofdeath iswellestablished
withinhim.Hedwellsrelyinguponthesefivepowersofatrainee:thepowersof
faith ... and wisdom. These five faculties are relatively feeble in him: the
faculties of faith ... and wisdom. Because of the feebleness of these five
faculties, with the breakup of the body, he attains Nibbāna through volitional
exertion.Thisis how a person, withthe breakup of the body,attains Nibbāna
throughvolitionalexertion.
“And how, monks, does a person, in this very life, attain Nibbāna without
volitional exertion? Here, secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from
unwholesomestates,amonkentersand dwellsinthefirstjhāna …thefourth
jhāna. He dwells relying upon these five powers of a trainee: the powers of
faith… and wisdom. These five faculties are extremely strong in him: the
facultiesoffaith...andwisdom.Becauseofthestrengthofthesefivefaculties,
in this very life he attains Nibbāna without volitional exertion. This is how a
person,inthisverylife,attainsNibbānawithoutvolitionalexertion.
“Andhow,monks,doesaperson,withthebreakupofthebody,attainNibbāna
without volitional exertion? Here, secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded
from unwholesome states, a monk enters and dwells in the first jhāna … the
fourthjhāna.Hedwellsrelyinguponthesefivepowersofatrainee:thepowers
of faith ... and wisdom. These five faculties are relatively feeble in him: the
faculties of faith ... and wisdom. Because of the feebleness of these five
faculties, with the breakup of the body, he attains Nibbāna without volitional
exertion.This is how aperson, with the breakupof the body,attains Nibbāna
withoutvolitionalexertion.
“These,monks,arethefourkindsofpersonsfoundexistingintheworld.”
(AN4:169;II155–56)
(3)SixThingsthatPartakeofTrueKnowledge
OnoneoccasiontheBlessedOnewasdwellingatRājagahaintheBamboo
Grove,theSquirrelSanctuary.NowonthatoccasionthelayfollowerDīghāvu
was sick, afflicted, gravely ill. Then the lay follower Dīghāvu addressed his
father,thehouseholderJotika,thus:“Come,householder,approachtheBlessed
One, pay homage to him in my name with your head at his feet, and say:
‘Venerablesir, the lay follower Dīghāvu is sick, afflicted, gravely ill; he pays
homagetotheBlessedOnewithhisheadattheBlessedOne’sfeet.’Thensay:‘It
wouldbegood,venerablesir,iftheBlessedOnewouldcometotheresidenceof
thelayfollowerDīghāvuoutofcompassion.’”
“Yes, dear,” the householder Jotika replied, and he approached the Blessed
One,paidhomagetohim,satdowntooneside,anddeliveredhismessage.The
BlessedOneconsentedbysilence.
Then the Blessed One dressed and, taking bowl and robe, went to the
residenceofthelayfollowerDīghāvu.Hethensatdownintheappointedseat
and said to the lay follower Dīghāvu: “I hope you are bearing up, Dīghāvu, I
hopeyouaregettingbetter.Ihopeyourpainfulfeelingsaresubsidingandnot
increasing,andthattheirsubsiding,nottheirincrease,istobediscerned.”
“Venerable sir, I am not bearing up, I am not getting better. Strong painful
feelings are increasing in me, not subsiding, and their increase, not their
subsiding,istobediscerned.”
“Therefore,Dīghāvu,youshouldtrainyourselfthus:‘Iwillbeonewhohas
confirmed confidence in the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, and who
observes the moral virtues dear to the noble ones, unbroken, untorn,
unblemished, unmottled, freeing, praised by the wise, ungrasped, leading to
concentration.’Itisinsuchawaythatyoushouldtrainyourself.”
“Venerablesir,astothesefourfactorsofstream-entrythathavebeentaught
bytheBlessedOne,thesethingsexistinme,andIliveinconformitywiththose
things. For, venerable sir, I have confirmed confidence in the Buddha, the
Dhamma, and the Saṅgha, and I observe the moral virtues dear to the noble
ones.”
“Therefore,Dīghāvu,establisheduponthesefourfactorsofstream-entry,you
shoulddevelopfurthersixthingsthatpartakeoftrueknowledge.Here,Dīghāvu,
dwell contemplating impermanence in all formations, perceiving suffering in
what is impermanent, perceiving nonself in what is suffering, perceiving
abandonment,perceivingfadingaway,perceivingcessation.
32
Itisinsuchaway
thatyoushouldtrainyourself.”
“Venerablesir,astothesesixthingsthatpartakeoftrueknowledgethathave
been taught by the Blessed One, these things exist in me, and I live in
conformity with those things. For, venerable sir, I dwell contemplating
impermanence in allformations, perceiving sufferingin what is impermanent,
perceiving nonself in what is suffering, perceiving abandonment, perceiving
fading away, perceiving cessation. However, venerable sir, I hope that after I
expire,myfatherwon’tbedistressed.”
“Don’tbeconcernedaboutthis,dearDīghāvu.Comenow,dearDīghāvu,pay
closeattentiontowhattheBlessedOneissayingtoyou.”
Then the Blessed One, having given this exhortation to the lay follower
Dīghāvu,rosefromhisseatanddeparted.Then,notlongaftertheBlessedOne
hadleft,thelayfollowerDīghāvudied.
ThenanumberofmonksapproachedtheBlessedOne,paidhomagetohim,
satdowntooneside,andsaid:“Venerablesir,thelayfollowerDīghāvuhasdied.
Whatishisdestination?Wherewashereborn?”
“Monks,thelayfollowerDīghāvuwaswise.Hepracticedinaccordancewith
theDhammaanddidnottroublemeonaccountoftheDhamma.Withtheutter
destructionofthefivelowerfetters,thelayfollowerDīghāvuhasbecomeoneof
spontaneous birth [in the pure abodes], due to attain Nibbāna there without
returningfromthatworld.”
(SN55:3;V344–46)
(4)FiveKindsofNonreturners
“Monks, when these seven factors of enlightenment have been developedand
cultivatedinthisway,sevenfruitsandbenefitsmaybeexpected.Whatarethe
sevenfruitsandbenefits?
“Oneattainsfinalknowledge(ofarahantship)earlyinthisverylife.
“Ifonedoesnotattainfinalknowledgeearlyinthisverylife,thenoneattains
finalknowledgeatthetimeofdeath.
“Ifonedoesnotattainfinalknowledgeearlyinthisverylifeoratthetimeof
death,thenwiththeutterdestructionofthefivelowerfettersoneattainsNibbāna
intheinterval.
33
“If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life ... or attain
Nibbānaintheinterval,thenwiththeutterdestructionofthefivelowerfetters
oneattainsNibbānauponlanding.
“If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life ... or attain
Nibbānauponlanding,thenwiththeutterdestructionofthefivelowerfetters
oneattainsNibbānawithoutvolitionalexertion.
“If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life ... or attain
Nibbānawithoutvolitionalexertion,thenwiththe utter destructionofthefive
lowerfettersoneattainsNibbānawithvolitionalexertion.
“If one does not attain final knowledge early in this very life ... or attain
Nibbānawithvolitionalexertion,thenwiththeutterdestructionofthefivelower
fettersonebecomesoneboundupstream,headingtowardtheAkaniṭṭharealm.
“When,monks,thesevenfactorsofenlightenmenthavebeendevelopedand
cultivatedinthisway,thesesevenfruitsandbenefitsmaybeexpected.”
(SN46:3;V69–70)
4.THEARAHANT
(1)RemovingtheResidualConceit“IAm”
On one occasion a number of elder monks were dwelling at Kosambī in
Ghosita’s Park. Now on that occasion the Venerable Khemaka was living at
JujubeTreePark,sick,afflicted,gravelyill.
Then, in the evening, those elder monks emerged from seclusion and
addressedtheVenerableDāsakathus:“Come,friendDāsaka,approachthemonk
Khemakaandsaytohim:‘Theelderssaytoyou,friendKhemaka:Wehopethat
youarebearingup,friend,wehopethatyouaregettingbetter.Wehopethatyour
painfulfeelings are subsiding and not increasing,and that their subsiding, not
theirincrease,istobediscerned.’”
“Yes,friends,”theVenerableDāsakareplied,andheapproachedtheVenerable
Khemakaanddeliveredhismessage.
[TheVenerableKhemakaanswered:]“Iamnotbearingup,friend,Iamnot
gettingbetter. Strong painful feelings areincreasing in me,not subsiding, and
theirincrease,nottheirsubsiding,istobediscerned.”
ThentheVenerableDāsakaapproachedtheeldermonksandreportedwhatthe
VenerableKhemakahadsaid.Theytoldhim:“Come,friendDāsaka,approach
the monk Khemaka and say to him: ‘The elders say to you, friend Khemaka:
Thesefive aggregates subject to clinging have been spoken of by the Blessed
One;thatis,form,feeling,perception,volitionalformations,andconsciousness.
Does the Venerable Khemaka regard anything as self or as belonging to self
amongthesefiveaggregatessubjecttoclinging?’”
“Yes,friends,”theVenerableDāsakareplied,andheapproachedtheVenerable
Khemakaanddeliveredhismessage.
[TheVenerableKhemakareplied:]“Thesefiveaggregatessubjecttoclinging
have been spoken of by the Blessed One; that is, form, feeling, perception,
volitionalformations,andconsciousness. Amongthesefive aggregates subject
toclinging,Idonotregardanythingasselforasbelongingtoself.”
ThentheVenerableDāsakaapproachedtheeldermonksandreportedwhatthe
VenerableKhemakahadsaid.Theyreplied:“Come,friendDāsaka,approachthe
monk Khemaka and say to him: If the Venerable Khemaka does not regard
anythingamongthesefiveaggregatesasselforasbelongingtoself,thenheis
anarahant,onewhosetaintsaredestroyed.’”
34
“Yes,friends,”theVenerableDāsakareplied,andheapproachedtheVenerable
Khemakaanddeliveredhismessage.
[TheVenerableKhemakareplied:]“Thesefiveaggregatessubjecttoclinging
have been spoken of by the Blessed One; that is, form, feeling, perception,
volitionalformations,andconsciousness.Idonotregardanythingamongthese
fiveaggregatessubjecttoclingingasselforasbelongingtoself,yetIamnotan
arahant,onewhosetaintsaredestroyed.Friends,[thenotion]‘Iam’hasnotyet
vanishedinmeinrelationtothesefiveaggregatessubjecttoclinging,butIdo
notregard[anythingamongthem]as‘ThisIam.’”
35
ThentheVenerableDāsakaapproachedtheeldermonksandreportedwhatthe
VenerableKhemakahadsaid.Theyreplied:“Come,friendDāsaka,approachthe
monkKhemakaandsaytohim:‘Theelderssaytoyou,friendKhemaka:Friend
Khemaka, when you speak of this “I am”—whatis it that youspeak ofas “I
am”?Doyouspeakofformas“Iam,”ordoyouspeakof“Iam”apartfrom
form?Doyouspeakoffeeling...ofperception...ofvolitionalformations...of
consciousnessas“Iam,”ordoyouspeakof“Iam”apartfromconsciousness?
Whenyouspeakofthis“Iam,”friendKhemaka,whatisitthatyouspeakofas
“Iam”?’”
“Yes,friends,”theVenerableDāsakareplied,andheapproachedtheVenerable
Khemakaanddeliveredhismessage.
“Enough, friend Dāsaka! Why keep running back and forth? Bring me my
staff,friend.I’llgototheeldermonksmyself.”
Then the Venerable Khemaka, leaning on his staff, approached the elder
monks, exchanged greetings with them, and sat down to one side. The elder
monks then said to him: “Friend Khemaka, when you speak of this ‘I am’ ...
whatisitthatyouspeakofas‘Iam’?”
“Friends,Idonotspeakofformas‘Iam,’nordoIspeakof‘Iam’apartfrom
form.Idonotspeakoffeelingas‘Iam’...norofperceptionas‘Iam’...norof
volitionalformationsas‘Iam’...norofconsciousnessas‘Iam,’nordoIspeak
of‘Iam’apartfromconsciousness.Friends,although[thenotion]‘Iam’hasnot
yetvanishedinmeinrelationtothesefiveaggregatessubjecttoclinging,stillI
donotregard[anythingamongthem]as‘ThisIam.’
“Suppose,friends,thereisthescentofablue,red,orwhitelotus.Wouldone
bespeakingrightlyifonewouldsay,‘Thescentbelongstothepetals,’or‘The
scentbelongstothestalk,’or‘Thescentbelongstothepistils’?”
“No,friend.”
“Andhow,friends,shouldoneanswerifoneistoanswerrightly?”
“Answering rightly, friend, one should answer: ‘The scent belongs to the
flower.’”
“Sotoo,friends,Idonotspeakofformas‘Iam,’nordoIspeakof‘Iam’
apartfromform.Idonotspeakoffeelingas‘Iam’…norofperceptionas‘Iam’
...norofvolitionalformationsas‘Iam’...norofconsciousnessas‘Iam,’nordo
Ispeakof‘Iam’apartfromconsciousness.Friends,although[thenotion]‘Iam’
has not yet vanished in me in relation to these five aggregates subject to
clinging,stillIdonotregard[anythingamongthem]as‘ThisIam.’
“Friends,eventhoughanobledisciplehasabandonedthefivelowerfetters,
still,inrelationtothefiveaggregatessubjecttoclinging,therelingersinhima
residualconceit‘Iam,’adesire‘Iam,’anunderlyingtendency‘Iam’thathas
notyetbeenuprooted.Sometimelaterhedwellscontemplatingriseandfallin
thefiveaggregates subjectto clinging: ‘Suchis form,such its origin,such its
passing away; such is feeling ... such is perception ... such are volitional
formations…suchisconsciousness,suchitsorigin,suchitspassingaway.’As
he dwells thus contemplating rise and fall in the five aggregates subject to
clinging,theresidualconceit‘Iam,’thedesire‘Iam,’theunderlyingtendency‘I
am’thathadnotyetbeenuprooted—thiscomestobeuprooted.
“Suppose,friends,aclothhasbecomesoiledandstained,anditsownersgive
it to a laundryman. The laundryman would scour it evenly with cleaning salt,
lye, or cow dung, and rinse it in clean water. Even though that cloth would
becomepureandclean,itwouldstillretainaresidualsmellofcleaningsalt,lye,
orcowdungthathadnotyetvanished.Thelaundrymanwouldthengiveitback
totheowners.Theownerswouldputitinasweet-scentedchest,andtheresidual
smell of cleaning salt, lye, or cow dung that had not yet vanished would
vanish.
36
“Sotoo,friends,eventhoughanobledisciplehasabandonedthefivelower
fetters,still,inrelationtothefiveaggregatessubjecttoclinging,therelingersin
himaresidualconceit‘Iam,’adesire‘Iam,’anunderlyingtendency‘Iam’that
hasnotyetbeenuprooted….Ashedwellsthuscontemplatingriseandfallinthe
fiveaggregatessubjecttoclinging,theresidualconceit‘Iam,’thedesire‘Iam,’
theunderlyingtendency‘Iam’thathadnotyetbeenuprooted—thiscomestobe
uprooted.”
Whenthiswassaid,theeldermonkssaidtotheVenerableKhemaka:“Wedid
notaskourquestionsinordertotroubletheVenerableKhemaka,butwethought
that the Venerable Khemaka would be capable of explaining, teaching,
proclaiming, establishing, disclosing, analyzing, and elucidating the Blessed
One’s teaching in detail. And the Venerable Khemaka has explained, taught,
proclaimed,established, disclosed,analyzed, and elucidatedthe BlessedOne’s
teachingindetail.”
ThustheeldermonkswereelatedanddelightedintheVenerableKhemaka’s
statement.Andwhilethisdiscoursewasbeingspoken,themindsofsixtyelder
monks and of the Venerable Khemaka were liberated from the taints by
nonclinging.
(SN22:89;III126–32)
(2)TheTraineeandtheArahant
AtKosambīinGhosita’sParktheBlessedOneaddressedthemonksthus:
“There is a method, monks, by means of which a monk who is a trainee,
standingonthe plane ofa trainee, mightunderstand:‘I am atrainee,’ whilea
monk beyond training, standing on the plane of one beyond training, might
understand:‘Iamonebeyondtraining.’
“Andwhat,monks,isthemethodbymeansofwhichamonkwhoisatrainee,
standingontheplaneofatrainee,understands:‘Iamatrainee’?
“Here, monks, a monk who is a trainee understands as it really is: ‘This is
suffering.Thisistheoriginofsuffering.Thisisthecessationofsuffering.This
isthewayleadingtothecessationofsuffering.’Thisisamethodbymeansof
whichamonkwhoisatrainee,standingontheplaneofatrainee,understands:‘I
amatrainee.’
“Again, monks, a monk who is a trainee considers thus: ‘Is there outside
here
37
another ascetic or brahmin who teaches a Dhamma so real, true, and
actualastheBlessedOnedoes?’Heunderstandsthus:‘Thereisnootherascetic
orbrahminoutsideherewhoteachesaDhammasoreal,true,andactualasthe
BlessedOnedoes.’Thistooisamethodbymeansofwhichamonkwhoisa
trainee,standingontheplaneofatrainee,understands:‘Iamatrainee.’
“Again, monks, a monk who is a trainee understands the five spiritual
faculties—thefacultiesoffaith,energy,mindfulness,concentration,andwisdom.
He does not yet dwell having contacted with the body that which is their
destination,theirculmination,theirfruit,theirfinalgoal;buthavingpiercedit
throughwithwisdom,hesees.
38
Thistooisamethodbymeansofwhichamonk
whoisatrainee,standingontheplaneofatrainee,understands:‘Iamatrainee.’
“Andwhat,monks,isthemethodbymeansofwhichamonkbeyondtraining,
standing on the plane of one beyond training, understands: ‘I am one beyond
training’? Here, monks, a monk beyond training understands the fivespiritual
faculties—thefacultiesoffaith...wisdom.Hedwellshavingcontactedwiththe
bodythatwhichistheirdestination,theirculmination,theirfruit,theirfinalgoal;
andhavingpierceditthroughwithwisdom,hesees.Thisisamethodbymeans
ofwhichamonkbeyondtraining,standingontheplaneofonebeyondtraining,
understands:‘Iamonebeyondtraining.’
“Again,monks,amonkbeyondtrainingunderstandsthesixfaculties—theeye
faculty,theearfaculty,thenosefaculty,thetonguefaculty,thebodyfaculty,the
mind faculty. He understands: ‘These six faculties will cease completely and
totallywithoutremainder,andnoothersixfacultieswillariseanywhereinany
way.’Thistooisamethodbymeansofwhichamonkbeyondtraining,standing
ontheplaneofonebeyondtraining,understands:‘Iamonebeyondtraining.’”
(SN48:53:V229–30)
(3)AMonkWhoseCrossbarHasBeenLifted
30. “Monks, an arahant is called one whose crossbar has been lifted, whose
trenchhasbeenfilledin,whosepillarhasbeenuprooted,onewhohasnobolt,a
nobleonewhosebannerislowered,whoseburdenislowered,whoisunfettered.
31. “And how is the arahant one whose crossbar has been lifted? Here the
arahanthasabandonedignorance,hascutitoffattheroot,madeitlikeapalm
stump,doneawaywithit,sothatitisnolongersubjecttofuturearising.Thatis
howheisonewhosecrossbarhasbeenlifted.
32.“And howis thearahant onewhose trenchhas beenfilled in?Here the
arahanthasabandonedtheroundofrebirths,theprocessofrenewedexistence,
hascutitoffattheroot...sothatitisnolongersubjecttofuturearising.Thatis
howheisonewhosetrenchhasbeenfilledin.
33. “And how is the arahant one whose pillar has been uprooted? Here the
arahanthasabandonedcraving,hascutitoffattheroot...sothatitisnolonger
subjecttofuturearising.Thatishowheisonewhosepillarhasbeenuprooted.
34. “And how is the arahant one who has no bolt? Here the monk has
abandonedthefivelowerfetters,hascutthemoffattheroot...sothattheyare
nolongersubjecttofuturearising.Thatishowheisonewhohasnobolt.
35. “And how is the arahant a noble one whose banner is lowered, whose
burden is lowered, who is unfettered? Here the arahant has abandoned the
conceit‘Iam,’hascutitoffattheroot...sothatitisnolongersubjecttofuture
arising.Thatishowheisanobleonewhosebannerislowered,whoseburdenis
lowered,whoisunfettered.”
(fromMN22:AlagaddūpamaSutta;I139–40)
(4)NineThingsanArahantCannotDo
“Inthepast,andalsonow,Ideclarethatamonkwhoisanarahantwithtaints
destroyed—one who has lived the spiritual life, done his task, laid down the
burden, attained his own goal, utterly destroyed the fetters of existence, and
becomeliberatedbyfinalknowledge—isincapableoftransgressioninregardto
nine things: he is incapable of destroying life, of taking what is not given,of
engaging in the sexual act, of telling a deliberate lie, and of making use of
stored-upenjoymentsashedidinthepastwhenhewasahouseholder;further,
he is incapable of taking a wrong course of action on account of desire, on
accountofhatred,onaccountofdelusion,oronaccountoffear.Inthepast,and
alsonow,Ideclarethatamonkwhoisanarahantisincapableoftransgressionin
regardtotheseninethings.”
(fromAN9:7;IV370–71)
(5)AMindUnshaken
[TheVenerableSāriputtasaid:]“When,friend,amonkisthusliberatedinmind,
evenifpowerfulformscognizablebytheeyecomeintorangeofhiseye,theydo
not obsess his mind; his mind remains uncontaminated, steady, attained to
imperturbability, and he contemplates their fall. Even if powerful sounds
cognizablebytheear…smellscognizablebythenose…flavorscognizableby
the tongue … tactile objects cognizable by the body … mental phenomena
cognizable by the mind come into range of his mind, they do not obsess his
mind;hismindremainsuncontaminated,steady,attainedtoimperturbability,and
he contemplates their fall. Suppose, friend, there were a stone pillar sixteen
meterslong,eightmeterssunkinthegroundandeightmetersabovetheground.
Then a powerful rainstorm would come from the east: the pillar would not
budge,wouldnotshake,wouldnottremble.Thenapowerfulrainstormwould
come from the north ... from the west ...from the south:the pillarwould not
budge,wouldnotshake,wouldnottremble.Whynot?Becauseofthedepthof
thebaseandbecausethestonepillarhasbeendeeplyplanted.Sotooforamonk
thusliberatedinmind,ifpowerful senseobjectscomeintorange, theydonot
obsess his mind; his mind remains uncontaminated, steady, attained to
imperturbability,andhecontemplatestheirfall.”
(fromAN9:26;IV404–5)
(6)TheTenPowersofanArahantMonk
The Buddha asked the Venerable Sāriputta: “How many powers does an
arahantmonkhave,Sāriputta,possessingwhichheclaimsthathehasattained
thedestructionofthetaints?”
“Thearahantmonkhastenpowers,venerablesir,possessingwhichheclaims
thathehasattainedthedestructionofthetaints.Whatten?
“Here,venerablesir,foranarahantmonkallformationshavebeenwellseen
astheyreallyarewithcorrectwisdomasimpermanent.Thisis a powerofan
arahantmonkonthebasisofwhichheclaimsthathehasattainedthedestruction
ofthetaints.
“Again,venerablesir,foranarahantmonksensualpleasureshavebeenwell
seenastheyreallyarewithcorrectwisdomassimilartoacharcoalpit.Thistoo
isapowerofanarahantmonk...
“Again,venerablesir,themindofanarahantmonkslants,slopes,andinclines
to seclusion; it dwells in seclusion, delights in renunciation, and is entirely
finishedwithallthingsthatareabasisforthetaints.Thistooisapowerofan
arahantmonk.…
“Further, venerable sir, for an arahant monk the four establishments of
mindfulnesshavebeendevelopedtothepointthattheyarewelldeveloped.This
tooisapowerofanarahantmonk.…
“Further,venerablesir,foranarahantmonkthefourrightkindsofstriving
thefourbasesforspiritualpower…thefivespiritualfaculties...thefivepowers
... the seven factors of enlightenment ... the Noble Eightfold Path has been
developedtothepointthatitiswelldeveloped.Thistooisapowerofanarahant
monkonthebasisofwhichheclaimsthathehasattainedthedestructionofthe
taints.”
39
(AN10:90;V174–75)
(7)TheSageatPeace
20.[TheBuddhafurtheraddressedPukkusātithus:]“Then[aftercontemplating
thesixelements],thereremainsonlyequanimity,purifiedandbright,malleable,
wieldy,andradiant.
40
...
21.“Heunderstandsthus:‘IfIweretodirectthisequanimity,sopurifiedand
bright,tothebaseoftheinfinityofspaceandtodevelopmymindaccordingly,
then this equanimity of mine, supported by this base, clinging to it, would
remainforaverylongtime.
41
IfIweretodirectthisequanimity,sopurifiedand
bright,tothebaseoftheinfinityofconsciousness…tothebaseofnothingness
…tothebaseofneither-perception-nor-non-perceptionandtodevelopmymind
accordingly,thenthisequanimityofmine,supportedbythisbase,clingingtoit,
wouldremainforaverylongtime.’
22.“Heunderstandsthus:‘IfIweretodirectthisequanimity,sopurifiedand
bright,tothebaseoftheinfinityofspaceandtodevelopmymindaccordingly,
thiswouldbeconditioned.
42
IfIweretodirectthisequanimity,sopurifiedand
bright,tothebaseoftheinfinityofconsciousness…tothebaseofnothingness
…tothebaseofneither-perception-nor-non-perceptionandtodevelopmymind
accordingly,thiswouldbeconditioned.’Hedoesnotconstructorgenerateany
volition tending toward either existence or non-existence.
43
Since he does not
construct or generate any volition tending toward either existence or
nonexistence,hedoesnotclingtoanythinginthisworld.Notclinging,heisnot
agitated. Not being agitated, he personally attains Nibbāna. He understands:
‘Birth is destroyed, the spiritual life has been lived, what had to be done has
beendone,thereisnomorecomingbacktoanystateofbeing.’
44
23.“Ifhefeelsapleasantfeeling,
45
heunderstands:‘Itisimpermanent;there
is no holding to it; there is no delight in it.’ If he feels a painful feeling, he
understands:‘Itisimpermanent;thereisnoholdingtoit;thereisnodelightin
it.’ If he feels a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, he understands: ‘It is
impermanent;thereisnoholdingtoit;thereisnodelightinit.’
24.“Ifhefeels a pleasantfeeling,hefeels it detached;ifhefeels a painful
feeling,hefeelsitdetached;ifhefeelsaneither-painful-nor-pleasantfeeling,he
feels it detached. When he feels a feeling terminating with the body, he
understands:‘Ifeelafeelingterminatingwiththebody.’Whenhefeelsafeeling
terminatingwithlife,heunderstands:‘Ifeelafeelingterminatingwithlife.’He
understands:‘Onthedissolutionofthebody,withtheendingoflife,allthatis
felt,notbeingdelightedin,willbecomecoolrighthere.’
46
Monk,justasanoil-
lampburnsindependenceonoilandawick,andwhentheoilandwickareused
up,ifitdoesnotgetanymorefuel,itisextinguishedfromlackoffuel;sotoo
whenhefeelsafeelingterminatingwiththebody...afeelingterminatingwith
life,heunderstands:‘Ifeelafeelingterminatingwithlife.’Heunderstands:‘On
the dissolution of the body, with the ending of life, all that is felt, not being
delightedin,willbecomecoolrighthere.’
47
25. “Therefore a monk possessing [this wisdom] possesses the supreme
foundationofwisdom.Forthis,monk,isthesupremenoblewisdom,namely,the
knowledgeofthedestructionofallsuffering.
26.“Hisliberation,beingfoundedupontruth,isunshakable.Forthatisfalse,
monk,whichhasadeceptivenature,andthatistruewhichhasanundeceptive
nature—Nibbāna. Therefore a monk possessing [this truth] possesses the
supremefoundationoftruth.Forthis,monk,isthesupremenobletruth,namely,
Nibbāna,whichhasanundeceptivenature.
48
27. “Formerly, when he was ignorant, he undertook and accepted
acquisitions;
49
nowhehasabandonedthem,cutthemoffattheroot,madethem
likeapalmstump,doneawaywiththemsothattheyarenolongersubjectto
futurearising.Thereforeamonkpossessing[thisrelinquishment]possessesthe
supreme foundation of relinquishment. For this, monk, is the supreme noble
relinquishment,namely,therelinquishingofallacquisitions.
28. “Formerly, when he was ignorant, he experienced covetousness, desire,
andlust;nowhehasabandonedthem,cutthemoffattheroot,madethemlikea
palmstump,doneawaywiththemsothattheyarenolongersubjecttofuture
arising.Formerly,whenhewasignorant,heexperiencedanger,illwill,andhate;
nowhehasabandoned them,cutthemoffattheroot,madethemlike apalm
stump,doneawaywiththemsothattheyarenolongersubjecttofuturearising.
Formerly,whenhewasignorant,heexperiencedignoranceanddelusion;nowhe
has abandoned them, cut them off at the root, made them like a palm stump,
done away with them so that they are no longer subject to future arising.
Thereforeamonkpossessing[thispeace]possessesthesupremefoundationof
peace.Forthis,monk,isthesupremenoblepeace,namely,thepacificationof
lust,hate,anddelusion.
29.“Soitwaswithreferencetothisthatitwassaid:‘Oneshouldnotneglect
wisdom,shouldpreservetruth,shouldcultivaterelinquishment,andshouldtrain
forpeace.’
30.“‘Thetidesofconceivingdonotsweepoveronewhostandsuponthese
[foundations],andwhenthetidesofconceivingnolongersweepoverhimheis
calledasageatpeace.’
50
So it wassaid. Andwith referenceto what wasthis
said?
31.“Monk,‘Iam’isaconceiving;‘Iamthis’isaconceiving;‘Ishallbe’isa
conceiving;‘Ishallnotbe’isaconceiving;‘Ishallhaveaphysicalform’isa
conceiving; ‘I shall be formless’ is a conceiving; ‘I shall be percipient’ is a
conceiving; ‘I shall be nonpercipient’ is a conceiving; ‘I shall be neither-
percipient-nor-nonpercipient’ is a conceiving.
51
Conceiving is a disease,
conceiving is a tumor, conceiving is a dart. By overcoming all conceivings,
monk,oneiscalledasageatpeace.Andthesageatpeaceisnotborn,doesnot
age, does not die; he is not shaken and does not yearn. For there is nothing
presentinhimbywhichhemightbeborn.
52
Notbeingborn,howcouldheage?
Notaging,howcouldhedie?Notdying,howcouldhebeshaken?Notbeing
shaken,whyshouldheyearn?
32.“Soitwaswithreferencetothisthatitwassaid:‘Thetidesofconceiving
donotsweepoveronewhostandsuponthese[foundations],andwhenthetides
ofconceivingnolongersweepoverhimheiscalledasageatpeace.’”
(fromMN140:DhātuvibhaṅgaSutta;III244–47)
(8)HappyIndeedAretheArahants
Happyindeedarethearahants!
Nocravingcanbefoundinthem.
Cutoffistheconceit“Iam,”
Burstasunderisdelusion’snet.
Theyhavereachedtheunstirredstate,
Limpidaretheirminds;
Theyareunsulliedintheworld—
Theholyones,withouttaints.
Havingfullyunderstoodthefiveaggregates,
Ranginginthesevengoodqualities,
53
Thosepraiseworthysuperiorpersons
AretheBuddha’sbosomoffspring.
Endowedwiththesevengems,
Trainedinthethreefoldtraining,
54
Thosegreatheroeswanderabout
Withfearandtremblingabandoned.
Endowedwiththetenfactors,
Thosegreatnāgas,concentrated,
Arethebestbeingsintheworld:
Nocravingcanbefoundinthem.
55
Theadepts’knowledgehasariseninthem:
“ThisbodyisthelastIbear.”
Inregardtothecoreofthespirituallife
Theynolongerdependonothers.
Theydonotwaverindiscrimination,
56
Theyarereleasedfromrenewedexistence.
Havingreachedthestageofthetamed,
Theyarethevictorsintheworld.
Above,across,andbelow,
Delightisnomorefoundinthem.
Theyboldlysoundtheirlion’sroar:
“Theenlightenedaresupremeintheworld.”
(fromSN22:76;III83–84)
5.THETATHĀGATA
(1)TheBuddhaandtheArahant
“Monks, through disenchantment with form, feeling, perception, volitional
formations, and consciousness, through their fading away and cessation, the
Tathāgata, the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One,is liberated by
nonclinging;heiscalledaPerfectlyEnlightenedOne.Throughdisenchantment
withform,feeling,perception,volitionalformations,andconsciousness,through
their fading away and cessation, a monk liberated by wisdom is liberated by
nonclinging;heiscalledoneliberatedbywisdom.
57
“Therein,monks,whatisthedistinction,thedisparity,thedifferencebetween
theTathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne,andamonkliberated
bywisdom?”
“Venerable sir, our teachings are rooted in the Blessed One, guided by the
BlessedOne,takerecourseintheBlessedOne.ItwouldbegoodiftheBlessed
Onewouldclearupthemeaningofthisstatement.Havinghearditfromhim,the
monkswillrememberit.”
“Thenlistenandattendclosely,monks,Iwillspeak.”
“Yes,venerablesir,”themonksreplied.TheBlessedOnesaidthis:
“The Tathāgata, monks, theArahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, is the
originator of the path unarisen before, the producer of the path unproduced
before,thedeclarerofthepathundeclaredbefore.Heistheknowerofthepath,
the discoverer of the path, the one skilled in the path. And his disciples now
dwellfollowingthatpathandbecomepossessedofitafterward.
“This, monks, is the distinction, the disparity, the difference between the
Tathāgata,theArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne,andamonkliberatedby
wisdom.”
(SN22:58;III65–66)
(2)FortheWelfareofMany
“Monks,thesethreepersonsariseintheworldforthewelfareofthemultitude,
forthehappinessofthemultitude,outofcompassionfortheworld,forthegood,
welfare,andhappinessofdevasandhumans.Whatthree?
“Here, monks, a Tathāgata arises in the world, an arahant, perfectly
enlightened…teacherofdevasandhumans,theEnlightenedOne,theBlessed
One.HeteachestheDhammathatisgoodatthebeginning,goodinthemiddle,
goodattheend,withtherightmeaningandphrasing;herevealsthespirituallife
thatisutterlyperfectandpure.This,monks,isthefirstpersonthatarisesinthe
worldforthewelfareofthemultitude,forthehappinessofthemultitude,outof
compassion for the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and
humans.
“Then,monks,adiscipleofthatteacherisanarahantwithtaintsdestroyed[as
in Text X,1(3), §42} … completely liberated through final knowledge. He
teachestheDhammathatisgoodatthebeginning…herevealsthespirituallife
thatisutterlyperfectandpure.This,monks,isthesecondpersonthatarisesin
theworldforthewelfareofthemultitude,forthehappinessofthemultitude,out
ofcompassionfortheworld,forthegood,welfare,andhappinessofdevasand
humans.
“Then, monks, a disciple of that teacher is a trainee practicing the path,
learned and endowed with precepts and observances. He too teaches the
Dhamma that is good at the beginning … he reveals the spiritual life that is
utterlyperfectandpure.This,monks,isthethirdpersonthatarisesintheworld
for the welfare of the multitude, for the happiness of the multitude, out of
compassion for the world, for the good, welfare, and happiness of devas and
humans.
“These,monks,arethethreepersonsthatariseintheworldforthewelfareof
the multitude, for the happiness of the multitude, out of compassion for the
world,forthegood,welfare,andhappinessofdevasandhumans.”
(It84;78–79)
(3)Sāriputta’sLoftyUtterance
TheVenerableSāriputtaapproachedtheBlessedOne,paidhomagetohim,sat
downtooneside,andsaid:“Venerablesir,IhavesuchconfidenceintheBlessed
One that I believe there has not been, nor ever will be, nor exists at present
another ascetic or brahmin more knowledgeable than the Blessed One with
respecttoenlightenment.”
58
“Loftyindeedisthisbellowingutteranceofyours,Sāriputta,youhaveroared
adefinitivelion’sroar.Haveyounow,Sāriputta,encompassedwithyourmind
themindsofalltheArahants,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOnes,ariseninthepast
andknownthus:‘ThoseBlessedOneswereofsuchmoraldiscipline,orofsuch
qualities, or of such wisdom, or of such meditative dwellings, or of such
liberation’?”
59
“No,venerablesir.”
“Then,Sāriputta,haveyouencompassedwithyourmindthemindsofallthe
Arahants, the Perfectly Enlightened Ones, who will arise in the future and
knownthus:‘ThoseBlessedOneswillbeofsuchmoraldiscipline,orofsuch
qualities, or of such wisdom, or of such meditative dwellings, or of such
liberation’?”
“No,venerablesir.”
“Then, Sāriputta, have you encompassed with your mind my own mind—I
beingatpresenttheArahant,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOne—andknownthus:
‘TheBlessed One is of such moral discipline, or of such qualities, or of such
wisdom,orofsuchmeditativedwellings,orofsuchliberation’?”
“No,venerablesir.”
“Sāriputta,whenyoudonothaveanyknowledgeencompassingthemindsof
the Arahants, the Perfectly Enlightened Ones of the past, the future, and the
present,whydoyouutterthislofty,bellowingutteranceandroarthisdefinitive
lion’s roar: ‘Venerable sir, I have such confidence in the Blessed One that I
believetherehasnotbeen,noreverwillbe,norexistsatpresentanotherascetic
or brahmin more knowledgeable than the Blessed One with respect to
enlightenment’?”
“Idonothave,venerablesir,anyknowledgeencompassingthemindsofthe
Arahants,thePerfectlyEnlightenedOnesofthepast,thefuture,andthepresent,
but still I have understood this by inference from the Dhamma. Suppose,
venerablesir,akinghadafrontiercitywithstrongramparts,walls,andarches,
andasinglegate.Thegatekeeperpostedtherewouldbewise,competent,and
intelligent;onewhokeepsoutstrangersandadmitsacquaintances.Whileheis
walking along the path that encircles the city he would not see a cleft or an
openinginthewallsevenbigenoughforacattoslipthrough.Hemightthink:
‘Whateverlargecreaturesenterorleavethiscity,allenterandleavethroughthis
onegate.’
“Sotoo,venerablesir,IhaveunderstoodthisbyinferencefromtheDhamma:
Whatever Arahants, Perfectly Enlightened Ones arose in the past, all those
BlessedOneshadfirstabandonedthefivehindrances,defilementsofthemind
that weaken wisdom; and then, with their minds well established in the four
establishments of mindfulness, developed correctly the seven factors of
enlightenment; and thereby they had awakened to the unsurpassed perfect
enlightenment. And, venerable sir, whatever Arahants, Perfectly Enlightened
Oneswillariseinthefuture,allthoseBlessedOneswillfirstabandonthefive
hindrances,defilementsofthe mindthatweaken wisdom; andthen,withtheir
mindswellestablishedinthefourestablishmentsofmindfulness,willdevelop
correctlythesevenfactorsofenlightenment;andtherebytheywillawakentothe
unsurpassed perfect enlightenment. And, venerable sir, the Blessed One, at
present the Arahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One, first abandoned the five
hindrances, defilements of the mind that weaken wisdom; and then, with his
mind well established in the four establishments of mindfulness, developed
correctlythesevenfactorsofenlightenment;andtherebyhehasawakenedtothe
unsurpassedperfectenlightenment.”
“Good,good,Sāriputta!Therefore,Sāriputta,youshouldrepeatthisDhamma
expositionfrequentlytothemonksandthenuns,tothemalelayfollowersand
thefemalelayfollowers.Eventhoughsomefoolishpeoplemayhaveperplexity
oruncertaintyregardingtheTathāgata,whentheyhearthisDhammaexposition
theirperplexityoruncertaintywillbeabandoned.”
(SN47:12;V159–61)
(4)ThePowersandGroundsofSelf-Confidence
9.“Sāriputta,theTathāgatahasthesetenTathāgata’spowers,possessingwhich
he claims the place of the chief of the herd, roars his lion’s roar in the
assemblies,andsetsrollingthewheelofBrahmā.
60
Whataretheten?
10.(1)“Here,theTathāgatacorrectlyunderstandsthepossibleaspossibleand
the impossible as impossible.
61
And that is a Tathāgata’s power that the
Tathāgatahas,byvirtueofwhichheclaimstheplaceofthechiefoftheherd,
roarshislion’sroarintheassemblies,andsetsrollingthewheelofBrahmā.
11. (2) “Again, the Tathāgata correctly understands the results of actions
undertaken,past,future,andpresentbywayofpossibilitiesandcauses.Thattoo
isaTathāgata’spower...
62
12. (3) “Again, the Tathāgata correctly understands the ways leading
everywhere.ThattooisaTathāgata’spower...
63
13.(4)“Again,theTathāgatacorrectlyunderstandstheworldwithitsmany
anddifferentelements.ThattooisaTathāgata’spower…
14.(5)“Again,theTathāgatacorrectlyunderstandshowbeingshavedifferent
inclinations.ThattooisaTathāgata’spower...
64
15. (6) “Again, the Tathāgata correctly understands the dispositionof the
facultiesofotherbeings,otherpersons.ThattooisaTathāgata’spower...
65
16. (7) “Again, the Tathāgata correctly understands the defilement, the
cleansing,andtheemergenceinregardtothejhānas,liberations,concentrations,
andattainments.ThattooisaTathāgata’spower...
66
17. (8) “Again, the Tathāgata recollects his manifold past lives with their
aspectsandparticulars.ThattooisaTathāgata’spower…
18. (9) “Again, with the divine eye, which is purified and surpasses the
human,theTathāgataseesbeingspassingawayand beingreborn,inferiorand
superior,fairandugly,fortunateandunfortunate,andheunderstandshowbeings
passonaccordingtotheiractions.ThattooisaTathāgata’spower…
19. (10) “Again, by realizing it for himself with direct knowledge, the
Tathāgatainthispresentlifeentersuponanddwellsintheliberationofmind,
liberationbywisdom,thatistaintlesswiththedestructionofthetaints.Thattoo
isaTathāgata’spowerthattheTathāgatahas,byvirtueofwhichheclaimsthe
placeoftheleaderoftheherd,roarshislion’sroarintheassemblies,andsets
rollingthewheelofBrahmā.
20. “The Tathāgata has these ten Tathāgata’s powers, possessing which he
claimstheplaceoftheleaderoftheherd,roarshislion’sroarintheassemblies,
andsetsrollingthewheelofBrahmā.…
22. “Sāriputta, the Tathāgata has these four grounds of self-confidence,
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possessingwhichheclaimstheplaceoftheleaderoftheherd,roarshislion’s
roarintheassemblies,andsetsrollingthewheelofBrahmā.Whatarethefour?
23.“Here,IseenogroundonwhichanyasceticorbrahminordevaorMāra
or Brahmā or anyone else at all in the world could, in accordance with the
Dhamma,accusemethus:‘Whileyouclaimtobeperfectlyenlightened,youare
notperfectlyenlightenedaboutthesethings.’Andseeingnogroundforthat,I
dwellinsafety,fearlessness,andself-confidence.
24.“Iseenogroundonwhichanyascetic...oranyoneatallcouldaccuseme
thus: ‘While you claim to be one who has destroyed the taints, you have not
destroyed these taints.’ And seeing no ground for that, I dwell in safety,
fearlessness,andself-confidence.
25.“Iseenogroundonwhichanyascetic...oranyoneatallcouldaccuseme
thus:‘Thosethingscalledobstructionsbyyouarenotabletoobstructonewho
engagesinthem.’Andseeingnogroundforthat,Idwellinsafety,fearlessness,
andself-confidence.
26.“Iseenogroundonwhichanyascetic...oranyoneatallcouldaccuseme
thus:‘WhenyouteachtheDhammatosomeone,itdoesnotleadhimwhenhe
practicesittothecompletedestructionofsuffering.’Andseeingnogroundfor
that,Idwellinsafety,fearlessness,andself-confidence.
27.“ATathāgatahasthesefourkindsofself-confidence,possessingwhichhe
claimstheplaceoftheleaderoftheherd,roarshislion’sroarintheassemblies,
andsetsrollingthewheelofBrahmā.”
(fromMN12:MahāsīhanādaSutta;I70–72)
(5)TheManifestationofGreatLight
“Monks,solongasthesunandmoonhavenotarisenintheworld,forjustso
long there is no manifestation of great light and radiance, but then blinding
darknessprevails,adensemassofdarkness;forjustsolongdayandnightare
not discerned, the month and fortnight are not discerned, the seasons and the
yeararenotdiscerned.But,monks,whenthesunandmoonariseintheworld,
then there is the manifestation of great light and radiance; then there is no
blindingdarkness,nodensemassofdarkness;thendayandnightarediscerned,
themonthandfortnightarediscerned,theseasonsandyeararediscerned.
“Sotoo,monks,solongasaTathāgatahasnotarisenintheworld,anArahant,
aPerfectlyEnlightenedOne,forjustsolongthereisnomanifestationofgreat
lightandradiance,butthenblindingdarknessprevails,adensemassofdarkness;
for just so long there is no explaining, teaching, proclaiming, establishing,
disclosing,analyzing,orelucidatingoftheFourNobleTruths.But,monks,when
aTathāgataarisesintheworld,anArahant,aPerfectlyEnlightenedOne,then
thereisthemanifestationofgreatlightandradiance;thennoblindingdarkness
prevails, no dense mass of darkness; then there is the explaining, teaching,
proclaiming, establishing, disclosing, analyzing, and elucidating of the Four
NobleTruths.”
(SN56:38;V442–43)
(6)TheManDesiringOurGood
25.“Suppose,monks,thatinawoodedrangetherewereagreatlow-lyingmarsh
nearwhichalargeherdofdeerlived.Thenamanappeareddesiringtheirruin,
harm, and bondage, and he closed off the safe and good path to be traveled
joyfully, and he opened up a false path, and he put out a decoy and set up a
dummysothatthelargeherdofdeermightlatercomeuponcalamity,disaster,
andloss.Butanothermancamedesiringtheirgood,welfare,andprotection,and
hereopenedthesafeandgoodpathtobetraveledjoyfully,andheclosedoffthe
falsepath,andheremovedthedecoyanddestroyedthedummy,sothatthelarge
herdofdeermightlatercometogrowth,increase,andfulfillment.
26.“Monks,Ihavegiventhissimileinordertoconveyameaning.Thisisthe
meaning:‘Thegreatlow-lyingmarsh’isatermforsensualpleasures.‘Thelarge
herd of deer is a term for beings. ‘The man desiring their ruin, harm, and
bondage’ is a term for Māra the Evil One. ‘The false path’ is a term for the
wrongeightfoldpath,thatis:wrongview,wrongintention,wrongspeech,wrong
action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness, and wrong
concentration.‘Thedecoy’isatermfordelightandlust.‘Thedummy’isaterm
forignorance.‘Themandesiringtheirgood,welfare,andprotection’isaterm
for the Tathāgata, theArahant, the Perfectly Enlightened One. ‘The safe and
goodpathtobetraveledjoyfully’isatermfortheNobleEightfoldPath,thatis:
rightview,rightintention,rightspeech,rightaction,rightlivelihood,righteffort,
rightmindfulness,andrightconcentration.
“So,monks,thesafeandgoodpathtobetraveledjoyfullyhasbeenreopened
by me, the wrong path has been closed off, the decoy removed, the dummy
destroyed.”
(fromMN19:DvedhāvitakkaSutta;I117–18)
(7)TheLion
“Monks,intheeveningthelion,thekingofbeasts,comesoutfromhislair.He
thenstretcheshimself,surveysthefourquartersallaround,androarshislion’s
roarthreetimes,afterwhichhesetsoutinsearchofgame.
“Whenthelion,thekingofbeasts,roarsitslion’sroar,mostoftheanimals
thathearthesoundarefilledwithfear,asenseofurgency,andterror.Thosewho
liveinholesentertheirholes;thosewholiveinthewaterenterthewater;those
wholiveinthewoodsenterthewoods;andthebirdsflyupintotheair.Even
those royal bull elephants, bound by strong thongs in thevillages, towns, and
capitalcities,burstandbreaktheirbondsasunder;frightened,theyurinateand
defecateandfleehereandthere.Sopowerfulamongtheanimals,monks,isthe
lion,thekingofbeasts,somajesticandmighty.
“Sotoo,monks,whentheTathāgataarisesintheworld,anarahant,perfectly
enlightened,accomplishedintrueknowledgeandconduct,fortunate,knowerof
the world, unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and
humans,the Enlightened One, the Blessed One, he teaches theDhamma thus:
‘Suchisform,suchitsorigin,suchitspassing away; suchisfeeling...suchis
perception... such are volitional formations... such is consciousness, such its
origin,suchitspassingaway.’
“Then,monks,whenthosedevaswhoarelong-lived,beautiful,aboundingin
happiness, dwelling for a long time in lofty palaces, hear the Tathāgata’s
teaching of the Dhamma, most
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are filled with fear, a sense of urgency, and
terror,[saying]:‘Itseems,thoughwethoughtourselvespermanent,thatweare
impermanent;itseems,thoughwethoughtourselvesstable,thatweareunstable;
itseems,thoughwethoughtourselveseternal,thatwearetransient.Itseems,sir,
that we are impermanent, unstable, transient, included within identity.’
69
So
powerful, monks, is the Tathāgata over this world together with its devas, so
majesticandmighty.”
(SN22:78:III84–85)
(8)WhyIsHeCalledtheTathāgata?
“Theworld,monks,hasbeenfullyawakenedtobytheTathāgata;theTathāgata
isdetachedfromtheworld.Theoriginoftheworldhasbeenfullyawakenedto
by the Tathāgata; the Tathāgata has abandoned the origin of the world. The
cessation of the world has been fully awakened to by the Tathāgata; the
Tathāgatahasrealizedthecessationoftheworld.Thewaytothecessationofthe
worldhasbeenfullyawakenedtobytheTathāgata;theTathāgatahasdeveloped
thewaytothecessationoftheworld.
“In the world, monks, with its devas, with Māra, with Brahmā, in this
populationwithitsasceticsandbrahmins,withitsdevasandhumans,whatever
thereisthatisseen,heard,sensed,cognized,reached,soughtafter,examinedby
themind,allthathasbeenawakenedtobytheTathāgata;thereforeheiscalled
theTathāgata.
“From the night he fully awakened, monks, until the night he attains final
Nibbāna,inthisinterval,whateverhespeaks,talksof,andexpounds,allthatis
justso,nototherwise;thereforeheiscalledtheTathāgata.
“Ashespeaks,monks,sohedoes;ashedoes,sohespeaks.Sincehedoesas
hespeaksandspeaksashedoes,thereforeheiscalledtheTathāgata.
“In this world, monks, with its devas, with Māra, with Brahmā, in this
population with its ascetics and brahmins, with its devas and humans, the
Tathāgataisthevanquisher,theunvanquished,theuniversalseer,thewielderof
mastery;thereforeheiscalledtheTathāgata.”
Havingdirectlyknownalltheworld,
Allintheworldexactlyasitis,
Heisdetachedfromalltheworld,
Unengagedwithalltheworld.
Heindeedistheall-vanquishingsage,
Theonereleasedfromalltheknots,
Whohasreachedthesupremestateofpeace,
Nibbāna,withoutfearfromanyside.
HeistheBuddha,withtaintsdestroyed,
Untroubled,withalldoubtscutoff,
Whohasattainedthedestructionofallkamma,
Liberatedintheextinctionofacquisitions.
HeistheBlessedOne,theBuddha,
Heisthelion,unsurpassed,
Inthisworldtogetherwithitsdevas,
HesetinmotionthewheelofBrahmā.
Thusthosedevasandhumanbeings
WhohavegoneforrefugetotheBuddha,
Havingassembled,payhomagetohim,
Thegreatonefreefromdiffidence.
“Tamed,heissupremeamongthosewhotame;
Atpeace,heisthesageamongthosewhobringpeace;
Freed,heisthechiefofthosewhosetfree;
Delivered,heisthebestofthosewhodeliver.”
Thusindeedtheypayhomagetohim,
Thegreatonefreefromdiffidence.
Inthisworldtogetherwithitsdevas,
Thereisnoonewhocanrivalyou.
(AN4:23;II23–24=It112;121–23)
NOTES
GENERALINTRODUCTION
1TheexactyearsoftheBuddha’slifearestillamatterofconjectureamong
scholars.Untilrecently,themostcommonlycitedfigureswere566–486B.C.E.,
butinrecentyearsagrowingnumberofIndologistshavecometoquestionthese
figuresandthecurrentpreferenceistoplacehisdeathcloserto400B.C.E.
2See,e.g.,MN22.10(I133).Someofthetermsareobscure,andthe
commentatorsseemtostraintofindwaystoidentifytextsthatcomewithintheir
scope.
3Butevenaslateastheageofthecommentators(fifthcenturyC.E.),the
TheravādatraditiontoocalledthemĀgamasaswellasNikāyas.
4TheCullavagga’saccountofthefirstcouncilisatVinII284–87.Therains
retreat(vassāvāsa)isathree-monthperiodcoincidingwiththeIndianrainy
seasonwhenBuddhistmonksmustrefrainfromwanderingandremainatfixed
residences.Theretreatgenerallylastsfromthedayafterthefull-moondayof
Julyuntilthefull-moondayofOctober.
5SeeNyanaponikaandHecker,GreatDisciplesoftheBuddha,chapter4.
6IntheTheravādatradition,thewritingdownofthecanonoccurredinSri
LankainthefirstcenturyB.C.E.Atthattimethemonks,apprehensivethatthe
orallypreservedteachingsmightbelost,collectivelyinscribedthetextsonpalm
leavesandboundtheseintovolumes,theprototypesofbooks.Uptothispoint,
whileindividualtextsmighthavebeenwrittendownbymonksasaidsto
memory,officiallyrecognizedtranscriptionsoftheteachingdidnotexist.Onthe
writingdownofthecanon,seeAdikaram,EarlyHistoryofBuddhisminCeylon,
p.79;andMalalasekera,ThePāliLiteratureofCeylon,pp.44–47.Itispossible
thatinIndiacanonicaltextswerewrittendownevenearlierthaninSriLanka.
7See,e.g.,ThichMinhChau,TheChineseMadhyamaĀgamaandthePāli
MajjhimaNikāya;ChoongMun-keat(Wei-keat),TheFundamentalTeachingsof
EarlyBuddhism.
8OnthenatureofPāli,seeNorman,PāliLiterature,pp.2–7.
9SeeManné,“CategoriesofSuttainthePāliNikāyas,”esp.pp.71–84.
10TheaboveinformationisderivedfromChoong,TheFundamentalTeachings
ofEarlyBuddhism,pp.6–7.
CHAPTERI:THEHUMANCONDITION
1KingPasenadiwastherulerofthestateofKosala,whosecapitalwasSāvatthī.
Jetavana,thegroveofPrinceJeta,wasalsoknownasAnāthapiṇḍika’sPark
becauseitwaspurchasedfortheBuddhabythewealthyphilanthropist,
Anāthapiṇḍika.TheNikāyasdepictPasenadiasoneoftheBuddha’smost
devotedlayfollowers,thoughtheynevershowhimasattaininganystageof
realization.AnentirechapteroftheSaṃyuttaNikāya—theKosalasaṃyutta
(chapter3)—recordshisconversationswiththeBuddha.
2Whenspeakingofthearahant,theBuddhadoesnotdescribehisdestinyas
“aginganddeath,”butasamerebreakingupanddiscardingofthebody.Thisis
becausethearahant,beingfreefromallnotionsof“I”and“mine,”doesnot
conceivethedecayanddissolutionofthebodyastheaginganddeathofan“I.”
3Devadūta.Accordingtolegend,whiletheBodhisattawasstillaprinceliving
inthepalace,heencounteredanoldman,asickman,andacorpse,sightshehad
neverseenbefore.Theseencountersshatteredhisworldlycomplacencyand
stirredhimtoseekawaytoliberationfromsuffering.Thecommentariessaythat
thesethreefiguresweredeitiesindisguisesenttoawakentheBodhisattatohis
mission.Henceoldage,illness,anddeatharecalled“divinemessengers.”
4Yamaisthelegendarygodoftheunderworld,whopassesjudgmentonthe
deadandassignsthemtotheirfuturedestiny.Accordingtosomeaccounts,he
doessomerelybyholdingbeforethedeadspiritsamirrorwhichreflectsback
theirgoodandbaddeeds.
5Theunderlyingtendencies(anusaya)aredispositionstowardthedefilements
thatliedormantinthemindandbecomeactivewhenprovoked.Sometexts,
suchasthepresentone,mentionthreeunderlyingtendencies:thetendencyto
lust(rāgānusaya)forpleasantfeeling;toaversion(paṭighānusaya)forpainful
feeling;andtoignorance(avijjānusaya)inregardtoneither-painful-nor-pleasant
feeling.Othertextsmentionsevenunderlyingtendencies:tosensuallust,
aversion,views,doubt,conceit,attachmenttoexistence,andignorance.
6Spk:Theescapeisconcentration,thepath,andthefruit.Hedoesnotknow
this;theonlyescapeheknowsissensualpleasure.
7Thesefivetermsconstituteamajorpatternforcontemplation.“Theoriginand
thepassingaway”(samudaya,atthaṅgama)pointtothecharacteristicof
impermanence.Onthetriadofgratification,danger,andescape(assāda,
ādīnava,nissaraṇa),seepp.186–87.
8Thesequelwillmakeitclearthat“theinstructednobledisciple”being
describedhereisthearahant,whoaloneisentirelyfreefromthetendenciesto
aversion,lust,andignorance.However,whilethearahantalonemaybecapable
ofmaintainingperfectequanimitytowardphysicalpain,anordinarypractitioner
canstillemulatethearahantbyattemptingtoovercomedejectionand
despondencywhenexperiencingpainfulbodilyfeelings.Everyonewithabody,
includingtheBuddha,issubjecttobodilypain.Amarkofspiritualmaturityis
theabilitytoendurepainwithoutbeingoverwhelmedbyit.
9Thenounparitassanāisderivedfromtheverbparitassati,whichrepresents
Sktparitṛṣyati,“tocrave,tothirstfor”;itisconnectedetymologicallywith
taṇhā,craving.However,inPālitheverbalstemhasbecomeconflatedwith
tasati=tofear,totremble,andthusitsnounderivativessuchasparitassanāand
paritasitaalsoacquiremeaningsderivedfromtasati.Thisconvergenceof
meanings,alreadyevidentintheNikāyas,ismadeexplicitinthecommentaries.
Ihavetriedtocapturebothnuancesbyrenderingtheverbparitassati“tobe
agitated”andthenounparitassanā“agitation.”ThoughSpkunderstands
paritassanāhereinthesenseofcraving,thetextseemstobeemphasizing
bhaya-paritassanā,“agitationasfear.”
10Theuninstructedworldlingisonewholacksbothdoctrinalknowledgeofthe
Dhamma(underscoredbythewordakovida,“unskilled”)andpracticaltraining
intheDhamma(underscoredbyavinīta,“undisciplined”).Theworldlingisnota
“seerofthenobleones,”thatis,oftheBuddhaandthenobledisciples,because
heorshelackstheeyeofwisdomthatdiscernsthetruththeyhaveseen.“Noble
ones”(ariya)and“superiorpersons”(sappurisa)aresynonyms.
The text here enumerates the twenty types of identity view (sakkāyadiṭṭhi),
obtainedbypositinga selfinfour waysinrelation tothefive aggregates that
constitutepersonalidentity(sakkāya).Identityviewisoneofthethreefettersto
beeradicatedatstream-entry,thefirstofthefourstagesofrealization.
Spk: He regards form as self (rūpaṃ attato samanupassati), by regarding
formandtheselfasindistinguishable,justastheflameofanoillampandits
color are indistinguishable. He regards self as possessing form (rūpavantaṃ
attānaṃ),whenhetakestheformless(i.e.,themindormentalfactors)asaself
thatpossessesform,inthewayatreepossessesashadow;formasinself(attani
rūpaṃ), when he takes the formless (mind) as a self within which form is
situated,asthescentisinaflower;selfasinform(rūpasmiṃattānaṃ),whenhe
takestheformless(mind)asaselfsituatedinform,asajewelisinacasket.
11Thisnoblediscipleispresumablyatminimumastream-enterer.
12Mahākaccānawasthedisciplewhoexcelledingivingdetailedanalysesofthe
Buddha’sbriefstatements.Foranaccountofhislifeandteachings,see
NyanaponikaandHecker,GreatDisciplesoftheBuddha,chapter6.
13Sakka,therulerofthedevasintheTāvatiṃsaheaven,wasafollowerofthe
Buddha.SeeSNchapter11.
14Papañcasaññāsaṅkhā.Themeaningofthisobscurecompoundisnot
elucidatedintheNikāyas.Thetermseemstorefertoperceptionsandideasthat
havebecome“infected”bysubjectivebiases,“elaborated”bythetendenciesto
craving,conceit,anddistortedviews.Accordingtothecommentaries,craving,
conceit,andviewsarethethreefactorsresponsibleforconceptualelaboration
(papañca).AdetailedstudyoftheexpressionisÑāṇananda,ConceptandReality
inEarlyBuddhistThought.
15Sv:Pursuit(pariyesanā)isthepursuitofobjectssuchasvisibleforms,etc.,
andgain(lābha)isthegainingofsuchobjects.Decision-making(vinicchaya)is
decidinghowmuchtokeepforoneselfandhowmuchtogivetoothers;how
muchtouseandhowmuchtostore,etc.
16Greed,hatred,anddelusion(lobha,dosa,moha)arethethree“unwholesome
roots”—therootcausesofallmentaldefilementsandunwholesomeactions;see
p.146.
17Anamataggo’yaṃbhikkhavesaṃsāro.Theoriginalmeaningofanamatagga
isuncertain.Spkglossesitas“havinganunfindablebeginning,”explaining:
“Evenifitshouldbepursuedbyknowledgeforahundredorathousandyears,it
wouldbewithunfindablebeginning,withunknownbeginning.Itwouldn’tbe
possibletoknowitsbeginningfromhereorfromthere;themeaningisthatitis
withoutadelimitingfirstorlastpoint.Saṃsāraistheuninterruptedlyoccurring
successionoftheaggregates.”
18Jambudīpa.“Therose-appleland,”theIndiansubcontinent.
19Kappa.Apparentlyamahākappa,a“greateon,”isintended,thelengthof
timeittakesforaworldsystemtoarise,develop,andperish.Eachmahākappa
consistsoffourasaṅkheyyakappas,individualperiodsofexpansion,
stabilization,contraction,anddissolution.ForadiscussionofearlyBuddhist
cosmology,seeGethin,TheFoundationsofBuddhism,pp.112–15.
20Ayojanaisapproximatelysevenmiles.
CHAPTERII:THEBRINGEROFLIGHT
1Suttanipātav.335.
2Althoughthebodhisattvaidealisusuallyunderstoodtobedistinctiveof
MahāyānaBuddhism,alltheschoolsofSectarianBuddhismintheperiod
precedingtheemergenceoftheMahāyānasharedthebeliefthattheBuddha
pursuedthecourseofabodhisattvaovermanyeons,fulfillingtherequirements
forBuddhahood.Mahāyāna’scontributionwastoadvocatethebodhisattva
careerasaprescriptivemodelforallBuddhistfollowerstopursue.
3The“sixthingsunsurpassed”(chaanuttariyā)areexplainedatAN6:130:the
unsurpassedsight(i.e.,thesightofaBuddhaorhisdisciple);theunsurpassed
hearing(i.e.,hearingtheDhammafromaBuddhaorhisdisciple);the
unsurpassedgain(i.e.,thegainoffaithinaBuddhaorhisdisciple);the
unsurpassedtraining(i.e.,traininginthehighermorality,highermind,higher
wisdomastaughtbyaBuddhaorhisdisciple);theunsurpassedservice(i.e.,
servicetoaBuddhaorhisdisciple);theunsurpassedrecollection(i.e.,the
recollectionofaBuddhaorhisdisciple).The“fouranalyticalknowledges”
(catassopaṭisambhidā)aretheanalyticalknowledgesofmeaning,doctrine,
language,andingenuity.Thefruitsofstream-entry,etc.,areexplainedinchapter
X.
4AstheBuddha’spersonalattendant,Ānandawasknownforhispersonal
dedicationtohismaster.Inthemainportionofthesutta,wherehearticulatesthe
traditionalbeliefsaboutthewondersaccompanyingtheBuddha’sconception
andbirth,heseemstorepresentthevoiceoffaithfuldevotion.
5ThisreferstotheBodhisatta’srebirthintheTusitaheaven,whichprecededhis
birthinthehumanworldasGotamathefutureBuddha.
6Ps:Betweeneverythreeworldsystemsthereisanintersticemeasuring8,000
yojanas;itislikethespacebetweenthreewagonwheelsoralmsbowlstouching
oneanother.Thebeingswholivetherehavetakenrebirththerebecauseof
committingsometerribleoffenceagainsttheirparentsorrighteousasceticsand
brahmins,orbecauseofsomehabitualevildeedlikekillinganimals,etc.
7Ps:ThefourdeitiesweretheFourGreatKings(i.e.,thepresidingdeitiesofthe
heavenoftheFourGreatKings).
8PsexplainseachaspectofthiseventasaforetokenoftheBuddha’slater
attainments.Thus,hisstandingwithhisfeet(pāda)firmlyonthegroundwasa
foretokenofhisattainingthefourbasesforspiritualpower(iddhipāda);his
facingthenorth,ofhisgoingaboveandbeyondthemultitude;hissevensteps,of
hisacquiringthesevenenlightenmentfactors;thewhiteparasol,ofhisacquiring
theparasolofliberation;hissurveyingthequarters,ofhisacquiringthe
unobstructedknowledgeofomniscience;hisutteringthewordsofthe“leaderof
theherd”(anepithetforaneminentperson),ofhissettinginmotionthe
irreversiblewheeloftheDhamma;hisstatement“Thisismylastbirth,”ofhis
passingawayintotheNibbānaelementwithnoresidueremaining(seeText
IX,5(5)).
9ThisstatementseemstobetheBuddha’swayofcallingattentiontothequality
heregardedasthetruewonderandmarvel.
10Intheunabridgedversionofthistext,goldandsilverareexcludedfromthe
thingssubjecttosickness,death,andsorrow,buttheyaresubjecttodefilement,
accordingtoPs,becausetheycanbealloyedwithmetalsoflesserworth.
11Ākiñcaññāyatana.Thisisthethirdformlessmeditativeattainment;preceded
bythefourjhānas,itistheseventhoftheeightattainments(samāpatti)inthe
scaleofconcentration.Theseattainments,thoughspirituallyexalted,arestill
mundaneand,divorcedfrominsight,arenotdirectlyconducivetoNibbāna.
12Thatis,itleadstorebirthintheplaneofexistencecalledthebaseof
nothingness,theobjectivecounterpartoftheseventhmeditativeattainment.Here
thelifespanissaidtobe60,000eons,butwhenthathaselapsedonemustpass
awayandreturntoalowerworld.Thusonewhoattainsthisisstillnotfreefrom
birthanddeath.
13N’evasaññānāsaññāyatana.Thisisthefourthandhighestformless
attainment.ItshouldbenotedthatUddakaRāmaputtaisRāma’sson(putta),not
Rāmahimself.ThetextgivestheimpressionthatwhileRāmahadattainedthe
baseofneither-perception-nor-nonperception,Uddakahimselfhadnotdoneso.
Theattainmentofthisbaseleadstorebirthinthebaseofneither-perception-nor-
nonperception,thehighestplaneofrebirthinsaṃsāra.Thelifespanthereissaid
tobe84,000eons,butbeingconditionedandimpermanent,itisstillultimately
unsatisfactory.
14TextII,3(2)continuesfromthispointwithanextendedaccountofthe
Bodhisatta’sextremeasceticpracticesfollowedbyhisdiscoveryofthemiddle
way.
15Saccakawasadebaterwhom,onanearlieroccasion,theBuddhahad
defeatedinadiscussion.Aggivessana,thenamebywhichtheBuddhaaddresses
himjustbelow,isprobablyhisclanname.Thepresentdiscoursebeginswitha
discussionaboutpleasantandpainfulfeeling,whichgivesthecueforSaccakato
posethesequestionstotheBuddha.
16ItispuzzlingthatinthefollowingparagraphstheBodhisattaisshown
engaginginself-mortificationafterhecomestotheconclusion—inthispassage
—thatsuchpracticesareuselessfortheattainmentofenlightenment.This
anomalyraisesasuspicionthatthenarrativesequenceofthesuttahasbecome
jumbled.Theappropriateplaceforthesimileofthefire-sticks,itseems,would
beattheendoftheBodhisatta’speriodofasceticexperimentation,whenhehas
acquiredasoundbasisforrejectingself-mortificationasawaytoenlightenment.
17Thissentence,repeatedattheendofeachofthefollowingsectionsaswell,
answersthesecondofthetwoquestionsposedbySaccakain§11.
18PsexplainsthatwhentheBodhisattawasachild,hisfatherbroughthim
alongtoattendtheceremonialplowingfestivaloftheSakyans.Theyoung
prince’sattendantslefthimunderarose-appletreeandwenttowatchthe
plowingceremony.Findinghimselfallalone,theBodhisattaspontaneouslysat
upinthemeditationpostureandattainedthefirstjhānathroughmindfulnessof
breathing.Thoughthesunmoved,theshadeofthetreeremainedoverthe
Bodhisatta.Whentheattendantsreturnedandfoundtheboyseatedin
meditation,theyreportedthistotheking,whocameandbowedinvenerationto
hisson.
19ThissentenceanswersthefirstofthetwoquestionsposedbySaccakain§11.
ThispassageshowsachangeintheBodhisatta’sevaluationofpleasure.When
pleasurearisesfromseclusionanddetachment,itisnolongersomethingtobe
fearedandbanishedbythepracticeofausteritiesbutbecomesanadjunctofthe
higherstagesalongthepathtoenlightenment.
20Intheusualformulaofdependentorigination,consciousnessissaidtobe
conditionedbyvolitionalformations(saṅkhārapaccayāviññāṇaṃ).Thisvariant
revealstheinterplayofconsciousnessandname-and-formtobethe“hidden
vortex”underlyingallexistencewithintheroundofrebirths.
21Spk:“Tothisextentonemaybeborn,age,anddie:Withconsciousnessasa
conditionforname-and-form,andwithname-and-formasaconditionfor
consciousness,tothisextentonemaybebornandundergorebirth.Whatisthere
beyondthisthatcanbebornorundergorebirth?Isn’titjustthisthatisbornand
undergoesrebirth?”
22NotethattheBuddhadiscoversthepathtoenlightenmentbyrealizingthe
cessationofconsciousness,name-and-form,andtheotherlinksofdependent
origination.CessationisrealizedwiththeexperienceofNibbāna,thedeathless
element.
23Atthispointthetextintroducesvolitionalformations.Itsprincipalcondition
isignorance,andthusbymentioningitsorigin,ignorancetooisimplied.Inthis
way,alltwelvefactorsoftheusualformulaofdependentoriginationare
included,atleastbyimplication.
24Ālaya.Thewordsignifiesboththeobjectsofclingingandthesubjective
attitudeofclinging.
25Bymentioningthesetwothemes—dependentoriginationandNibbāna—in
hisreflectionsimmediatelyafterhisenlightenment,theBuddhaunderscores
theirimportanceforunderstandingthecontentofhisenlightenment.The
enlightenmentthusinvolvedacomprehension,first,ofthedependentorigination
ofsuffering,andsecond,ofNibbānaasthestateofultimateliberationthat
transcendsallphenomenainvolvedinthedependentoriginationofsuffering.
TheBuddhafirsthadtocomprehenddependentorigination,andonlywhenhe
haddonesocouldhearriveattherealizationofNibbāna.The“acquisitions”
(upadhi)thatarerelinquishedcanbeunderstoodastwofold:intermsofthe
object,asthefiveaggregatesor,morebroadly,asallobjectsofappropriation;
andsubjectively,asthecravingthatmotivatesactsofappropriation.
26Psraisesthequestionwhy,whentheBodhisattahadlongagomadean
aspirationtoattainBuddhahoodinordertoliberateothers,hismindnow
inclinedtowardinaction.Thereason,itsays,isthatonlynow,afterbecoming
enlightened,didherecognizehowprofoundtheDhammawasandhowdifficult
itwouldbeforthosewithstrongdefilementstounderstandit.Also,hewanted
BrahmātoaskhimtoteachsothatpeoplewhovenerateBrahmāwouldrespect
theDhammaandwishtohearit.
27ThesefivemonksattendedontheBodhisattaduringhisperiodofself-
mortification,convincedthathewouldattainenlightenmentandteachthemthe
Dhamma.However,whenheabandonedhisausteritiesandresumedtakingsolid
food,theylostfaithinhimanddesertedhim,accusinghimofrevertingto
luxury.SeeTextII,3(2).
28Anantajina:perhapsthiswasanepithetusedbytheĀjīvakasforthe
spirituallyperfectedindividual.
29Āvuso:afamiliartermofaddressusedamongequals.
30Thechangeinaddressfrom“friend”(āvuso)to“venerablesir”(bhante)
indicatesthattheyhavenowacceptedtheBuddha’sclaimandarepreparedto
regardhimastheirsuperior.
31AtthispointtheBuddhapreachedtothemhisfirstsermon,the
DhammacakkappavattanaSutta,“TheSettinginMotionoftheWheelof
Dhamma”;seeTextII,5.Severaldayslater,aftertheyhadallbecomestream-
enterers,hetaughtthemtheAnattalakkhaṇaSutta,“TheCharacteristicof
Nonself,”uponhearingwhichtheyallattainedarahantship;seeTextIX,4(1)(c).
ThecompletenarrativeisatVinI7–14.SeeÑāṇamoli,TheLifeoftheBuddha,
p.47.
32Thefirstsectionundertheexpositionofeachnobletruthsimplyrevealsthe
knowledgeofthetruthitself(saccañāṇa).
33Thesecondsectionundertheexpositionofeachnobletruthrevealsthe
knowledgeofthetasktobeaccomplishedwithregardtothattruth(kiccañāṇa).
Thefirstnobletruthistobefullyunderstood(pariññeyya),thesecondtobe
abandoned(pahātabba),thethirdtoberealized(sacchikātabba),andthefourth
tobedeveloped(bhāvetabba).
34Thethirdsectionundertheexpositionofeachnobletruthrevealsthe
knowledgeofthecompletionofthetaskappropriatetothattruth(katañāṇa).
Thefirstnobletruthhasbeenfullyunderstood(pariññāta),thesecondhasbeen
abandoned(pahīna),thethirdhasbeenrealized(sacchikata),andthefourthhas
beendeveloped(bhāveta).
35Thethreephases(tiparivaṭṭa)are:(i)theknowledgeofeachtruth;(ii)the
knowledgeofthetasktobeachievedregardingthattruth;and(iii)the
knowledgethatthistaskhasbeencompleted.Thetwelvemodes(dvādasākāra)
areobtainedbyapplyingthethreephasestothefourtruths.
36Thisstockformulationimpliesthatonthisoccasion,Koṇḍaññaattainedthe
firststageofenlightenment,stream-entry.
37Thesearethedevasofthesixsense-sphereheavenlyworldsandthebrahma
world.
CHAPTERIII:APPROACHINGTHEDHAMMA
1.Amongthecriteriaheproposesistheopinionofthewise,whichshows
thatfarfromrejectingtheopinionsofothers,theBuddhaincludesthe
opinionsoftherightsortofpersonamongthestandardsfordetermining
properconduct.Othersuttastellushowwecanjudgewhoistrulywise;
seeTextIII,4andTextIII,5.
2.Mpexplainsthatthistownwaslocatedattheedgeofaforest.Various
groupsofwanderersandasceticswouldstoptheretospendthenight
beforecrossingtheforest.Duringtheirstaytheywouldgivetalkstothe
Kālāmas,andtheKālāmaswerethusexposedtoawiderangeof
philosophicaltheories.Theconflictsbetweenthedifferentviewscaused
themdoubtandperplexity.
3.TheaboveisastockpassageintheNikāyas.
4.Theseteninadequatecriteriaoftruthcanbegroupedintothreeclasses:
(1)Thefirstcomprisesthefirstfourcriteria,allpositionsbasedon
reverencefortradition.Ofthese,(i)“oraltradition”(anussava)refersto
theVedictradition,which,accordingtothebrahmins,hadoriginated
withtheprimaldeityandcamedownorallythroughsuccessive
generations.(ii)“Lineage”(paramparā)signifiesanunbrokensuccession
ofteachingsorteachers.(iii)“Hearsay”(or“report,”itikirā)maymean
popularopinionorgeneralconsensus.And(iv)“acollectionoftexts”
(piṭakasampadā)referstoreligioustextsregardedasinfallible.(2)The
secondset,alsomadeupoffourterms,iscomprisedoffourtypesof
reasoningrecognizedbythinkersintheBuddha’sage;theirdifferences
neednotdetainushere.(3)Thethirdset,madeupofthelasttwoitems,
referstotwotypesofpersonalauthority:(i)thepersonalcharismaofthe
speaker(perhapsincludinghisexternalqualifications,e.g.,thatheis
highlyeducated,hasalargefollowing,isrespectedbytheking,etc.);and
(ii)thespeakersstatusasone’sownpersonalteacher(thePāliwordgaru
isidenticalwiththeSanskritguru).Foradetailedanalysis,see
Jayatilleke,EarlyBuddhistTheoryofKnowledge,pp.175–202,271–75.
5.Greed,hatred,anddelusionarethethreeunwholesomeroots.Theaimof
theBuddha’steaching,Nibbāna,isdefinedasthedestructionofgreed(or
lust),hatred,anddelusion.ThustheBuddhaisguidingtheKālāmas
towardtheheartofhisteaching.
6.HeretheBuddhaintroducesthefourdivineabodes(brahmavihāra):
boundlessloving-kindness,compassion,altruisticjoy,andequanimity.
7.Mp:Becausehedoesnoevilandbecausenoevil(i.e.,suffering)will
cometohim.
8.Thisisastockpassage.“Goingforrefuge”istheactbywhichanew
convertacknowledgestheBuddha,theDhamma,andtheSaṅghaas
guidingideals.InBuddhisttradition,ithasbecometheprocedureby
whichoneformallydeclaresoneselfaBuddhist.
9.Gāmaṇi.Thewordsuggeststhatheisapersonofsomeprominencein
thetown.
10.NotethattheheadmanhereascribestotheBuddha,asadirect
quotation,ageneralstatementofthecausalrelationshipbetweendesire
andsufferingnotfoundintheBuddha’swordsabove.Thestatementis,
however,clearlyneededasthereferentof“thisprinciple”(iminā
dhammena).Itisthuspossiblethatthestatementwasintheoriginaltext
buthaddroppedoutinthecourseofitsoraltransmission.Justbelowthe
Buddhadoesmakethegeneralizationhimself.
11.Read,withBeandCe,ajānantena,asagainstEe’sājānantena.The
negativeisclearlyrequiredhere,sincethemonkwhocannotdirectly
knowtheBuddha’smindmustinferfromhisbodilyandverbalbehavior
thatheisfullypurified.
12.“Statescognizablethroughtheeye”arebodilyactions;“states
cognizablethroughtheear”arewords.
13.“Mixedstates”wouldmeantheconductofonewhoistryingtopurify
hisbehaviorbutisunabletodosoconsistently.Sometimeshisconductis
pure,sometimesimpure.
14.Ps:Thedangersareconceit,arrogance,etc.Forsomemonksarecalm
andhumbleaslongastheyhavenotbecomewellknownandpopular;
butwhentheybecomefamousandpopular,theygoaboutacting
improperly,attackingothermonkslikealeopardpouncingonaherdof
deer.
15.Ps:ThisstatementshowstheBuddha’simpartiality.Hedoesnotextol
someanddisparageothers.
16.Sotasmiṃdhammeabhiññāyaidh’ekaccaṃdhammaṃdhammesu
niṭṭhaṃgacchati.InordertoconveytheintendedmeaningIhave
renderedthesecondoccurrenceofdhammahereas“teaching,”i.e.,the
particulardoctrinetaughttohim,thepluraldhammesuas“teachings,”
andtasmiṃdhammeas“thatDhamma,”inthesenseofthetotalteaching.
PsandPs-pṭtogetherexplainthemeaningthus:“WhentheDhammahas
beentaughtbytheMaster,themonk,bydirectlyknowingtheDhamma
throughpenetrationofthepath,fruit,andNibbāna,comestoa
conclusionregardingthepreliminaryteachingoftheDhammaaboutthe
aidstoenlightenment(bodhipakkhiyādhammā).”
17.Thisreferstothefaithofanobleperson(ariyapuggala),whohasseen
theDhammaandthuscanneveracknowledgeanyteacherotherthanthe
Buddha.
18.HewasaprominentbrahminwhoruledoverOpasāda,acrownproperty
inthestateofKosalathathadbeengrantedtohimbyKingPasenadi.
19.ApparentlythisisKāpaṭhika’sclanname.
20.Thesearetheancientrishiswhomthebrahminsregardedasthedivinely
inspiredauthorsoftheVedichymns.
21.InPāli:saddhā,ruci,anussava,ākāraparivitakka,diṭṭhinijjhānakkhanti.
Ofthesefivegroundsforarrivingataconviction,thefirsttwoseemtobe
basedprimarilyonemotion,thethirdtobeanunquestioningacceptance
oftradition,andthelasttwoprimarilyrationalorcognitive.Thelast
threeareincludedamongthetenunacceptablegroundsforabeliefin
TextIII,2.The“twodifferentways”thateachmayturnoutaretrueor
false.
22.Itisnotproperforhimtocometothisconclusionbecausehehasnot
personallyascertainedthetruthofhisconvictionbutonlyacceptsitona
groundthatisnotcapableofyieldingcertainty.
23.Saccānurakkhana:or,thesafeguardingoftruth,theprotectionoftruth.
24.Saccānubodha:or,theawakeningtotruth.
25.Inthisseries,“hescrutinizes”(tūleti),accordingtoPs,meansthathe
investigatesphenomenaasimpermanent,suffering,andnonself.Thisis
thestageofinsightcontemplation.“Appliesthewill”(ussahati)and
“strives”(padahati)appearsimilar.Wemightunderstandtheformeras
theeffortleadingtoinsight,thelatterastheeffortthatleadsfrominsight
toworld-transcendingrealization.Thislaststepissignifiedbythe
expression,“herealizeswiththebodythesupremetruth.”Thesupreme
truth(paramasacca)isNibbāna.
26.Whilethe“discoveryoftruth”(saccānubodha)inthiscontextseemsto
meantheattainmentofstream-entry,thefinalarrivalattruth
(saccānuppatti)mustmeantheattainmentofarahantship.Notethatthe
finalarrivalattruthdoesnotcomeaboutthroughanynewmeasures,but
simplythroughtherepeateddevelopmentofthosesamefactorsthatled
tothediscoveryoftruth.
27.Ps:Thebrahminsbelievedthattheythemselvesweretheoffspringof
Brahmā’smouth,thekhattiyasofhisbreast,themercantileclass(vessa)
ofhisbelly,theworkers(sudda)ofhislegs,andsamaṇasofthesolesof
hisfeet.
CHAPTERIV:THEHAPPINESSVISIBLEINTHIS
PRESENTLIFE
1Asthestandardforthewheel-turningmonarch,DhammaisnottheBuddha’s
teachingbutthemorallawofjusticeandrighteousnessonthebasisofwhichthe
righteouskingruleshiscountryandgainssovereigntyovertheworld.InIndian
iconography,thewheel(cakka)isthesymbolofsovereigntyinboththetemporal
andspiritualspheres.Theworldrulerassumeskingshipwhenthemystical
“wheeltreasure”(cakkaratana)appearstohim(seeTextIV,6(5));thewheel
treasurepersistsasthesymbolofhisrule.Analogously,theBuddhasetsin
motionthewheeloftheDhamma,whichcannotbeturnedbackbyanyoneinthe
world.
2ComparewiththeshoutofthedevasattheconclusionofTextII,5.
3ThehouseholderNakulapitāandthehousewifeNakulamātāweretheforemost
oftheBuddha’slaydiscipleswithregardtotheirtrustinhim.SeeNyanaponika
andHecker,GreatDisciplesoftheBuddha,pp.375–78.
4AnāthapiṇḍikawastheBuddha’sforemostmalelaysupporter.See
NyanaponikaandHecker,GreatDisciplesoftheBuddha,chapter9.
5Dāsī:literally,afemaleslave.Fortunately,inBuddhistsocietiesthis
recommendationhasnotbeentakenveryseriouslyandthefirstthreemodelsof
theidealwifehaveprevailed.
6VisākhāwastheBuddha’sforemostfemalelaysupporter.TheEasternPark
wasthemonasteryshehadbuiltfortheBuddhaintheeasternpartofSāvatthī.
7Thisargumentisintendedtorefutethebrahmins’claimthattheyarebornfrom
themouthofBrahmā.
8YonaisprobablytheGreekcolonyofBactria,inmodernAfghanistanand
Pakistan.GreekslivedandruledhereaftertheconquestsofAlexandertheGreat.
KambojaisprobablytothenorthwestoftheIndian“MiddleCountry.”
9KingAjātasattuhadcometopowerbykillinghisfather,thevirtuousking
Bimbisāra,asupporteroftheBuddhawhohadattainedstream-entry,thefirst
stageofliberation.Ajātasattulaterfeltremorseforhisheinousdeedand,after
hearingtheBuddhateachtheSāmaññaphalaSutta(DN2),becamehisfollower.
TheVajjianconfederacy,northofMagadha,ontheothersideoftheriver
Ganges,consistedoftheLicchavisofVesālīandtheVedehis(ofVideha—to
whomAjātasattu’smotherbelonged),whosecapitalwasMithilā.
10TheuposathaisthedayofreligiousobservanceintheIndianlunarcalendar.
Itfallsonthedaysofthefullmoon(thefifteenthofthefortnight),thenewmoon
(thefourteenthorfifteenthofthefortnight),andthetwohalf-moons.The
“uposathadayofthefifteenth”referredtohereisprobablythefull-moon
uposatha.
11IcorrectanerrorinWalshe’stranslationhere.Walshetranslatesasifthe
virtuousasceticsandbrahminsshouldcometothekingtoaskforhisguidancein
whatiswholesomeandunwholesome.ThePālitext,however,isclearthatitis
thekingwhoshouldapproachthevirtuousasceticsandbrahminstoaskfortheir
guidance.
12Yathābhuttañcabhuñjatha.ThePālimeansliterally“eatthefoodasithas
beeneaten,”butthisseemstobetheimplication.Walshe’s“Bemoderatein
eating”cannotbecorrect.
13Purohita.Hewasabrahminwhoservedasanadvisoronbothreligiousand
temporalaffairs.
CHAPTERV:THEWAYTOAFORTUNATE
REBIRTH
1Cetanā’haṃbhikkhavekammaṃvadāmi,cetayitvākammaṃkarotikāyena
vācāyamanasā(ANIII415).
2Thedistinctionseemstobelightlydrawninthesuttaliterature,butinthe
commentariesitbecomeshardenedintoaprecisedelimitationbetweenthethree
typesofresultsanykammamayproduce.
3Forthedistinctionbetweenthesetwotypesofrightview,seeMN117(not
includedinthisanthology).InthetechnicalterminologyofthePāli
commentators,eventheinsightintothethreecharacteristics(impermanence,
suffering,nonself)andknowledgeoftheoriginativeaspectofdependent
originationarestillmundane(lokiya)becausetheirobjectsaremundane
phenomena.Inthecommentarialsystem,onlythedirectcognitionofthe
unconditioned,Nibbāna,isclassifiedassupramundanerightview.However,I
hereusetheterms“supramundane”and“world-transcending”(lokuttara)ina
broadersense,asreferringtotheknowledgeandview(and,morebroadly,toall
practices)thatleadtothetranscendingoftheworld.
4ForafullerdiscussionofthepsychologicalbasisofEarlyBuddhistcosmology,
seeGethin,TheFoundationsofBuddhism,pp.119–26.
5Respectively,dasaakusalākammapathāanddasakusalākammapathā.Inthe
Nikāyas,thelatteroccursatANV57;bothareatDNIII269.
6Buddhisttextsofasomewhatlaterdatethantheoldeststrataofthecanonadd
afourthbaddestination,therealmoftheasuras.Intheoldcanon,theasurasare
depictedastitanicbeingsengagedinperpetualconflictwiththedevasbutare
notassignedtoaseparaterealm.Sincetheirlivingconditions,asdescribedinthe
canon,canhardlybecalledunbearablymiserable,thecommentatorsidentifythe
asurasthatconstitutethefourthbaddestination—notwiththeasuraswhobattle
againstthedevas—butwithaclassofbeingsintherealmofafflictedspirits.
Needlesstosay,thepictureoftherealmsthatemergeswhentheasurasare
considereddistinctbecomessomewhatblurred:iftheyarethebeingswhofight
againstthedevas,theyaren’tdepictedaslivinginabjectmisery;iftheyarea
classofbeingsinthespiritrealm,thereseemsnoreasontotreatthemasa
separaterealm.
7Iheredescribethespheresofrebirthcorrespondingtothefourthjhānain
accordancewiththecosmologyofscholasticTheravādaBuddhism.Other
schoolsofEarlyBuddhism—basedontextsparalleltotheNikāyas—dividedup
theterrainofthefourthjhānarealmssomewhatdifferently.
8Thecommunityofnobledisciplesconsistsoffourpairsofpersons,thosewho
haveenteredthefourpathsandthosewhohaverealizedthefourfruits.Seep.
373.
9Subhakiṇhādevā.Thesearethedeitiesinhabitingthehighestplaneofrebirth
correspondingtothethirdjhāna.
10AN4:235explainsthisasthedevelopmentoftheNobleEightfoldPath;AN
4:236,asthedevelopmentofthesevenenlightenmentfactors.
11Thisisamorallynihilisticmaterialistviewthatdeniesanafterlifeandthe
fruitsofkamma.“Thereisnothinggiven”meansthereisnofruitofgiving;“no
thisworld,nootherworld,”norebirthintoeitherthisworldoraworldbeyond;
“nomother,nofather,”nofruitofgoodandbadconducttowardparents.The
statementaboutasceticsandbrahminsdeniestheexistenceofBuddhasand
arahants.
12Pssaysthat“thedevasofradiance”isnotaseparateclassofdevasbuta
collectivenameforthethreeclassesthatfollow;thesamefor“thedevasof
glory.”
13Itshouldbenotedthatwhile“conductinaccordancewiththeDhamma”as
describedinthesuttaisanecessaryconditionforrebirthinthehigherheavenly
worldsandforthedestructionofthetaints,itisbynomeansasufficient
condition.RebirthintotherealmsbeginningwiththedevasofBrahmā’sretinue
requirestheattainmentofjhāna,rebirthintothepureabodes(thefivebeginning
withtheavihādevas)requirestheattainmentofthestageofnonreturner.Rebirth
intotheformlessplanesrequiresthecorrespondingformlessattainments,andthe
destructionofthetaintsrequiresthefullpracticeoftheNobleEightfoldPathup
tothepathofarahantship.
14Ps:Ifthekammaofkillingdirectlydeterminesthemodeofrebirth,itwill
producerebirthinabaddestination.Butifawholesomekammabringsabouta
humanrebirth—andrebirthasahumanbeingisalwaystheresultofwholesome
kamma—thekammaofkillingwilloperateinamannercontrarytothatofthe
rebirth-generativekammabycausingvariousadversitiesthatmayculminateina
prematuredeath.Thesameprincipleholdsforthesubsequentcasesinwhich
unwholesomekammamaturesinahumanexistence:ineachinstance,the
unwholesomekammacounteractsthewholesomekammaresponsibleforthe
humanrebirthbycausingaparticulartypeofmisfortunespecifictoitself.
15Inthiscasethewholesomekammaofabstainingfromkillingisdirectly
responsibleforeithertheheavenlyrebirthorlongevityinahumanexistence.
Thesameprincipleappliesinallthepassagesonthematurationofwholesome
kamma.
16Thismeansthattheactofgivingisnotsufficienttoobtainthedesiredresult.
Itmustbesupportedbypuremoralconduct.Foroneofpersistentimmoral
conduct,generositywouldnotsufficetobringafavorablerebirth.
17Thisissaidbecauserebirthintothebrahmaworld—andintootherplanesin
theformrealm—isachievedthroughattainmentofthejhānas,whichrequiresthe
suppressionofsensuallust.
18Ontheuposatha,seep.153.
19The“propertime”formeals,accordingtothemonasticanduposatha
precepts,isbetweendaybreakandnoon.Fromnoonon,solidfoodsaswellas
certainnourishingliquids(suchasmilk)cannotbeconsumed.Fruitjuices,soft
drinks,tea,herbalteas,andotherlightdrinksareallowed.
20ThesearethestatesoftheIndiansubcontinentandtheadjacentregions.
21Psexplainslimitingaction(pamāṇakataṃkammaṃ)askammapertainingto
thesensesphere(kāmāvacara).Itisopposedbyalimitlessorimmeasurable
action,namely,thejhānasandformlessattainments.Inthiscase,the
brahmavihārasdevelopedtothelevelofjhānaareintended.Whenajhānaor
formlessattainmentismastered,akammapertainingtothesensespherecannot
findtheopportunitytoyielditsownresult.Rather,thekammapertainingtothe
formrealmortheformlessrealmoverpowersthesense-spherekammaand
producesitsresults.Abrahmavihārathathasbeenmasteredleadstorebirthin
thebrahmaworld.
22A“personpossessedofrightview”(diṭṭhisampannapuggala)isastream-
enterer.Thestream-entererandthosewhoreachhigherattainmentswillbe
discussedinchapterX.
23Apaccekabuddhaisonewho,likeaPerfectlyEnlightenedBuddha,attains
enlightenmentwithouttheguidanceofateacher,butunlikeaBuddhaisunable
toguideotherstoenlightenment.Accordingtocommentarialtradition,
paccekabuddhasdonotarisewhiletheteachingofaPerfectlyEnlightened
Buddhaexistsintheworldbutonlyintheperiodsbetweenthearisingof
Buddhas.
CHAPTERVI:DEEPENINGONE’S
PERSPECTIVEONTHEWORLD
1Ps:“Fullunderstanding”(pariññā)heremeansovercoming(samatikkama)or
abandoning(pahāna).Thewanderersofothersectsidentifythefull
understandingofsensualpleasureswiththefirstjhāna,thefullunderstandingof
formwithformlessexistence[theformlessplanescorrespondingtotheformless
meditativeattainments],andthefullunderstandingoffeelingswith
nonpercipientexistence[aplaneofexistenceinwhichperceptionistemporarily
suspended].TheBuddha,ontheotherhand,describesthefullunderstandingof
sensualpleasuresasthepathtothestageofnonreturner,andthefull
understandingofbothformandfeelingsasthepathtoarahantship.
2Notethatwhilethepreviousdangersinsensualpleasureswerecalled“amass
ofsufferinginthispresentlife”(sandiṭṭhikodukkhakkhandho),thisoneiscalled
“amassofsufferinginthelifetocome”(samparāyikodukkhakkhandho).
3Vohārasamuccheda.Vohāracanmeanbusinesstransactions,designation,
speech,andintentions.Pssaysallfourarerelevant,sincehethinkshehasgiven
upthebusiness,designation,speech,andintentionsofahouseholder.
4Psexplainsthe“equanimitythatisdiversified,basedondiversity”asthat
relatedtothefivecordsofsensualpleasure;the“equanimitythatisunified,
basedonunity”asthatbasedonthefourthjhāna.
5Māgandiyawasaphilosophicalhedonistwhoheldthatoneshouldallowthe
fivesensestoenjoytheirrespectiveobjects.HecriticizedtheBuddhafor
advocatingrestraintandcontrolofthesenses.TheBuddhaisaboutto
demonstratethedefectsinsensualenjoyment.
6Psglossesnippurisa,“nonemale,”asmeaningthattheywereallwomen.Not
onlythemusicians,butallpostsinthepalace,includingthedoor-keepers,were
filledbywomen.Hisfatherhadprovidedhimwiththreepalacesandthe
entourageofwomeninhopesofkeepinghimconfinedtothelaylifeand
distractinghimfromthoughtsofrenunciation.
7Ps:Thisissaidreferringtotheattainmentofthefruitofarahantship
(arahattaphala-samāpatti)basedonthefourthjhāna.
8The“GroveofDelight”intheTāvatiṃsaheaven.
9Theexpressionviparītasaññāalludestothe“distortedperception”of
perceivingpleasureinwhatisreallypainful.AN4:49speaksoffourdistortions
ofperception(saññāvipallāsa):perceivingtheunattractiveasattractive,the
impermanentaspermanent,thepainfulaspleasurable,andtheselflessasaself.
Sensualpleasuresarepainfulbecausetheyarousethepainfuldefilementsand
becausetheybringpainfulfruitsinthefuture.
10Whatisintendedherebywrongview(micchādiṭṭhi)areviewsthatdenythe
foundationsofmorality,especiallythoseviewsthatrejectaprincipleofmoral
causationortheefficacyofvolitionaleffort.
11Forest-dwellingandtherestareamongtheasceticpracticespermittedbythe
Buddha.Onthetenfetters,seepp.374–75.Spksaysthatsomeamongthem
werestream-enterers,someonce-returners,andsomenonreturners.Nonewere
worldlings,andnonewerearahants.
12Thismeanstheattainmentofarahantship.
CHAPTERVII:THEPATHTOLIBERATION
1Amongthesetenviews,thosethatentertainideasabouttheworld(loka)are
alsoimplicitlyentertainingsimilarideasabouttheself(attā).Thusthefirstpair
istheantithesisofeternalismandannihilationism.Theviewthatthesoulisthe
sameasthebodyismaterialism,atypeofannihilationism;theviewthatthesoul
andthebodyaredifferentiseternalism.TheviewthataTathāgata—aliberated
person—existsafterdeathiseternalism;theviewthathedoesnotexistafter
deathisannihilationism.Theviewthathebothexistsanddoesnotexistisa
syncreticdoctrinecombiningfeaturesofeternalismandannihilationism;the
viewthatheneitherexistsnordoesnotexistisskepticismoragnosticism,which
deniesthatwecandeterminehisconditionafterdeath.Alltheseviews,fromthe
Buddhistperspective,presupposethattheTathāgatapresentlyexistsasaself.
Theythusbeginwithanerroneouspremiseanddifferonlyinsofarastheyposit
thefateoftheselfindifferentways.
2Thosewhohavealwayswonderedaboutthefateofthemonkwhoalmostleft
theBuddhatosatisfyhismetaphysicalcuriositywillberelievedtoknowthatin
hisoldageMāluṅkyāputtareceivedabriefdiscourseonthesixsensebasesfrom
theBuddha,wentintoretreat,andattainedarahantship.SeeSN35:95.
3DevadattawastheBuddha’sambitiouscousin,whoattemptedtokillthe
BuddhaandusurpcontroloftheSaṅgha.Whentheseattemptsfailed,hebroke
awayandtriedtoestablishhisownsectwithhimselfatthehead.SeeÑāṇamoli,
LifeoftheBuddha,pp.266–69.
4Ps:“Knowledgeandvision”(ñāṇadassana)herereferstothedivineeye,the
abilitytoseesubtleformsinvisibletonormalvision.
5ThistranslationfollowsBeandCe,whichreadasamayavimokkhaṃinthe
precedingsentenceandasamayavimuttiyāinthissentence.Eeseemstobe
mistakeninreadingsamayainthetwocompoundsandṭhānaṃinsteadof
aṭṭhānaṃ.PscitesthePaṭisambhidāmaggaforadefinitionofasamayavimokkha
(lit.,non-temporaryor“perpetual”emancipation)asthefourpaths,fourfruits,
andNibbāna,andofsamayavimokkha(temporaryemancipation)asthefour
jhānasandfourformlessattainments.SeealsoMN122.4.
6Pssaysthat“unshakableliberationofmind”(akuppācetovimutti)isthefruit
ofarahantship.Thus“perpetualemancipation”—asincludingallfourpathsand
fruits—hasawiderrangethan“unshakableliberationofmind.”Thelatteralone
isdeclaredtobethegoaloftheholylife.
7Rāgavirāgatthaṃ.Thismightalsohavebeenrendered,somewhatawkwardly,
“Forthedispassioningofpassion,”or“Forthedelustingoflust.”
8Spk:Whenhewasinseclusion,Ānandathought,“Thispracticeofamonk
succeedsforonewhoreliesongoodfriendsandonhisownvirileeffort;thus
halfdependsongoodfriendsandhalfonone’sownvirileeffort.”
9VacchāyanaisPilotika’sclanname.
10Seep.436(chapterV,n.19).
11Thesigns(nimitta)aretheprominentqualitiesoftheobjectwhich,when
graspedunmindfully,caninstigatedefiledthoughts;thefeatures(anubyañjana)
arethedetailsthatattractone’sattentionwhenonedoesnotrestrainthesenses.
“Longinganddejection”(abhijjhā-domanassa)impliestheopposedreactionsof
desireandaversion,attractionandrepulsion,towardsenseobjects.
12Here,longing(abhijjhā)issynonymouswithsensualdesire(kāmacchanda),
thefirstofthefivehindrances.Thisentirepassagedealswiththeovercomingof
thefivehindrances.
13Hedoesnotcometosuchaconclusionbecausethejhānas,aswellasthefirst
twohigherknowledges(tofollow),arenotuniquetotheBuddha’steaching.
14AccordingtoPs,thisshowstheoccasionofthesupramundanepath.Sinceat
thispointthenobledisciplehasstillnotcompletedhistask,hehasnotyetcome
toaconclusion(natvevaniṭṭhaṃgatohoti)abouttheThreeJewels;rather,heis
intheprocessofcomingtoaconclusion(niṭṭhaṃgacchati).Thesuttapunson
themeaningoftheexpression“comingtoaconclusion”inawaythatisjustas
viableinEnglishasinPāli.
15Ps:Thisshowstheoccasionwhenthedisciplehasattainedthefruitof
arahantship,andhavingentirelycompletedhistask,hascometoaconclusion
abouttheThreeJewels.
CHAPTERVIII:MASTERINGTHEMIND
1Thesearethestagesofstream-entry,once-returning,nonreturning,and
arahantship.SeechapterX.
2See,e.g.,AN9:3(IV358)=Ud4:1.
3Atranslationofthesuttatogetherwithitscommentaryandsubstantialexcerpts
fromthesubcommentarycanbefoundinSomaThera,TheWayofMindfulness.
Twoexcellentmodernexpositions,whichalsoincludetranslationsofthesutta,
are:NyanaponikaThera,TheHeartofBuddhistMeditation,andAnālayo,
Satipaṭṭhāna:TheDirectPathtoRealization.
4Mp:Whenserenityisdevelopedindependentlyofinsight,itleadstothe
suppressionofthefivehindrances,thefirstofwhichissensuallust,and
culminatesinthe“highermind”(adhicitta)ofthejhānas,characterizedbythe
absenceoflust.Butitisonlywhenserenityisdevelopedinconjunctionwith
insightthatitcangiverisetothenoblepath,whicheradicatestheunderlying
tendencytosensuallust(bythepathofnonreturning)andattachmentto
existence(bythepathofarahantship).Mpinterpretsserenityhereinthissecond
sense,presumablyonaccountofthelastsentenceofthesutta.
5Mp:Itisthewisdomofthesupramundanepath(magga-paññā)thatis
developed.The“ignoranceabandoned”isthegreatignoranceattherootofthe
cycleofexistence.
6Arahantshipisoftendescribedas“taintlessliberationofmind,liberationby
wisdom”(anāsava-cetovimutti-paññāvimutti).Mpexplains“liberationofmind”
(cetovimutti)astheconcentrationconnectedwiththefruit(ofarahantship),
“liberationbywisdom”(paññāvimutti)asthewisdomconnectedwiththefruit.
Mpisreferringtothe“meditativeattainmentofthefruitofarahantship”
(arahattaphala-samāpatti),asupramundanemeditativeabsorptioninwhichthe
arahantexperiencestheblissofNibbāna.
7Samathapubbaṅgamaṃvipassanaṃ.Mp:“Thisreferstoameditatorwhofirst
obtainsserenityandthentakesupinsightmeditation.”Thecommentatorscall
suchameditatoronewhomakesserenitythevehicleofpractice(samathayānika
).SeeVism587;Ppn18:3.
8“Thepath”(magga)isthefirstsupramundanepath,thatofstream-entry.To
“developthatpath,”accordingtoMp,meanstopracticefortheattainmentofthe
threehigherpaths.Onthetenfetters,seepp.374–75;onthesevenunderlying
tendencies,seep.426(chapterI,n.5).
9Vipassanāpubbaṅgamaṃsamathaṃ.Mp:“Thisreferstoonewhobynatural
bentfirstattainstoinsightandthen,basedoninsight,producesconcentration.”
Inthecommentarialliteraturethisiscalledonewhomakesinsightthevehicle
(vipassanāyānika).SeeVism588;Ppn18:4.
10Samathavipassanaṃyuganaddhaṃ.Inthismodeofpractice,oneentersthe
firstjhānaandthen,afteremergingfromit,appliesinsighttothatexperience,
i.e.,oneseesthefiveaggregatesofthejhāna(form,feeling,perception,etc.)as
impermanent,boundupwithsuffering,andnonself.Thenoneentersthesecond
jhānaandcontemplatesitwithinsight.Oneappliesthesameproceduretothe
otherjhānasaswelluntilthepathofstream-entry,etc.,isrealized.
11Dhammuddhaccaviggahitaṃmānasaṃhoti.Mpsaysthat“agitation”
(uddhacca)ariseshereasareactiontotheten“corruptionsofinsight”
(vipassanūpakkilesa)thatonemisunderstandsasindicatingpath-attainment.(On
thecorruptionsofinsight,seeVism633–38;Ppn20:105–28.)Itispossible,
however,thatthe“agitationabouttheteaching”ismentaldistressbroughtonby
eagernesstorealizetheDhamma.Thisstateofspiritualanxiety,whensuddenly
resolved,cansometimesprecipitateaninstantaneousexperienceofawakening.
Foranexample,seethestoryofBāhiyaDārucīriyaatUd1:10.
12Mpexplainsinternalserenityofmind(ajjhattaṃcetosamatha)asthe
concentrationoffullabsorption(i.e.,jhāna),andthehigherwisdomofinsight
intophenomena(adhipaññādhammavipassanā)astheinsightknowledge
discerningformations(saṅkhārapariggāhaka-vipassanāñāṇa).
13“Formations”(saṅkhārā)aretheconditionedphenomenacomprisedinthe
fiveaggregates.Ontheaggregates,seeTextsIX,4(1)(a)–(e).
14Spkappliesthescholasticdistinctionofthethreetypesofescape(nissaraṇa)
toeachhindrance.Oneescapesfromthehindrancebysuppression
(vikkhambhananissaraṇa)throughjhāna;oneescapesinaparticularrespect
(tadaṅganissaraṇa)throughinsight;andoneescapesbyeradication
(samucchedanissaraṇa)throughthesupramundanepath.Thus:(1)sensual
desireissuppressedbythefirstjhānabasedontheunattractivenatureofthe
body(asubha;seeTextVIII,8§10)anderadicatedbythepathofarahantship
(sincekāmacchandaishereinterpretedwidelyenoughtoincludedesireforany
object,notonlysensualdesire);(2)illwillissuppressedbythefirstjhānabased
onloving-kindnessanderadicatedbythepathofnonreturning;(3)dullnessand
drowsinessaresuppressedbytheperceptionoflight(i.e.,visualizationofa
brightlight,likethediscofthesunorthefullmoon)anderadicatedbythepath
ofarahantship;(4)restlessnessandremorsearesuppressedbyserenity,remorse
iseradicatedbythepathofnonreturningandrestlessnessbythepathof
arahantship;and(5)doubtissuppressedbythedefiningofphenomena
(dhammavavatthāna;seeVism587–89;Ppn18:3–8)anderadicatedbythepath
ofstream-entry.
15Thesearethethree“wrongthoughts,”oppositeofrightthoughtorright
intention,thesecondfactoroftheNobleEightfoldPath.SeeTextVII,2.
16Dhammavitakka.Mptakesthistorefertotheten“corruptionsofinsight,”but
itseemsmorenaturaltounderstanditsimplyasobsessivereflectionsaboutthe
Dhamma.
17Thisreferstothepreliminaryconditionsforthesixdirectknowledges
(abhiññā),tobedescribedjustbelow.Thepreliminaryconditionforthefive
mundanedirectknowledgesisthefourthjhāna.Thepreliminaryconditionfor
arahantship,thesixthdirectknowledge,isinsight.Thisdirectknowledgealone
issupramundane.
18Pssaysthehighermind(adhicitta)isthemindoftheeightmeditative
attainmentsusedasabasisforinsight;itiscalled“highermind”becauseitis
higherthantheordinary(good)mindofthetenwholesomecoursesofaction.
Thefive“signs”(nimitta)maybeunderstoodaspracticalmethodsforremoving
distractingthoughts.Theyshouldberesortedtoonlywhenthedistractions
becomepersistentorobtrusive;atothertimesthemeditatorshouldremainwith
theprimarysubjectofmeditation.
19Ps:Whenthoughtsofsensualdesirearisedirectedtowardlivingbeings,the
“othersign”isthemeditationontheunattractivenatureofthebody(seeText
VIII,8§10);whenthethoughtsaredirectedtoinanimatethings,the“othersign”
isattentiontoimpermanence.Whenthoughtsofhatearisedirectedtowardliving
beings,the“othersign”isthemeditationonloving-kindness;whentheyare
directedtoinanimatethings,the“othersign”isattentiontotheelements(see
TextVIII,8§12).Theremedyforthoughtsconnectedwithdelusionisliving
underateacher,studyingtheDhamma,inquiringintoitsmeaning,listeningto
theDhamma,andinquiringintocauses.
20Vitakka-saṅkhāra-saṇṭhānaṃ.Glossingsaṅkhārahereascondition,cause,or
root,Psinterpretsthecompoundtomean“stoppingthecauseofthethought.”
Thisisaccomplishedbyinquiring,whenanunwholesomethoughthasarisen:
“Whatisitscause?Whatisthecauseofitscause?”etc.Suchaninquiryslows
down,andeventuallycutsoff,theflowofunwholesomethoughts.
21Tadārammaṇaṃ,lit.“withthat(one)astheobject.”Ps:Firstonedevelops
loving-kindnesstowardthepersonwhoaddressesonewithanyofthefive
coursesofwrongspeech,thenonedirectsthatmindofloving-kindnesstoward
allbeings,makingtheentireworldtheobject.
22MahānāmawasacloserelativeoftheBuddha,aprominentmemberofthe
Sakyanclan.
23Thephrases“arrivedatthefruit”(āgataphala)and“understoodtheteaching”
(viññātasāsana)indicatethatheisaskingaboutthemeditationsofanoble
discipleattheminimumlevelofstream-enterer.However,suchmeditationscan
alsobeprofitablypracticedbypeopleatanylevel,fortheytemporarilycleanse
themindofthedefilementsandleadtoconcentration.
24Iabridgethetext,whichhereenumeratesthedifferentheavenlyrealms.
25ThePālireadsekāyanoayaṃbhikkhavemaggo.Almostalltranslatorshave
understoodthisstatementtobeadeclarationthatsatipaṭṭhānaisanexclusive
path.ThusSomaTherarendersit:“Thisistheonlyway,Obhikkhus,”and
NyanaponikaThera:“Thisisthesoleway,monks.”However,atMN12.37–42
ekāyanamaggahastheunambiguousmeaningof“apaththatgoesinoneway
only,”andthatseemsthemeaningthatfitsbesthereaswell.Thepointseemsto
besimplythatsatipaṭṭhānagoesinonedirection,toward“thepurificationof
beings...therealizationofNibbāna.”
26Pssaystherepetition“contemplatingthebodyinthebody”(kāye
kāyānupassī)hasthepurposeofpreciselydeterminingtheobjectof
contemplationandofisolatingthatobjectfromotherswithwhichitmightbe
confused.Thus,inthispractice,thebodyshouldbecontemplatedassuch,and
notone’sfeelings,ideas,andemotionsconcerningit.Thephrasealsomeansthat
thebodyshouldbecontemplatedsimplyasabodyandnotasaman,awoman,a
self,oralivingbeing.Parallelconsiderationsapplytotherepetitionswithregard
toeachoftheotherthreeestablishmentsofmindfulness.“Longingand
dejection”(abhijjhā-domanassaṃ),accordingtoPs,implysensualdesireandill
will,thechiefamongthefivementalhindrances.
27Onthestructureofthediscoursetofollow,seepp.262–63.
28Thepracticeofmindfulnessofbreathing(ānāpānasati)doesnotinvolvesa
deliberateattempttoregulatethebreath,asinhathayoga,butanefforttofix
awarenesscontinuouslyonthebreathasonebreathesatanaturalrhythm.
Mindfulnessissetupatthenostrilsortheupperlip,wherevertheimpactofthe
breathisfeltmostdistinctly.Thelengthofthebreathisnotedbutnot
consciouslycontrolled.
The complete development of this meditation subject is explained in Text
VIII,9. A detailed explanation of mindfulness of breathing according to the
commentarialsystemisatVism266–93;Ppn8:145–244.Seetoothecollection
oftextstranslatedbyÑāṇamoli,MindfulnessofBreathing.
29Ps,inlinewithotherPālicommentaries,explains“experiencingthewhole
body”(sabbakāyapaṭisaṃvedī)tomeanthatthemeditatorbecomesawareof
eachin-breathandout-breaththroughitsthreephasesofbeginning,middle,and
end.Thisinterpretationisdifficulttosquarewiththeliteralwordsoftheoriginal
text,whichmayhaveoriginallyintendedsimplyaglobalawarenessoftheentire
body.Itisalsodifficulttoseehow-paṭisaṃvedīcouldmean“isawareof”;this
suffixisbasedontheverbpaṭisaṃvedetimeaning“toexperience”or“tofeel,”
whichhasadifferentnuancefrom“awareness.”
30The“bodilyformation”(kāyasaṅkhāra)isdefinedasin-and-outbreathingat
MN44.13(I301)andSN41:6(IV293).Thus,asPsexplains,withthe
successfuldevelopmentofthispractice,themeditatorsbreathingbecomes
increasinglymorequiet,tranquil,andpeaceful.
31Ps:“Internally”:contemplatingthebreathinginhisownbody.“Externally”:
contemplatingthebreathingtakingplaceinthebodyofanother.“Internallyand
externally”:contemplatingthebreathinginhisownbodyandinthebodyof
anotheralternately,withuninterruptedattention.Asimilarexplanationappliesto
therefrainthatfollowseachoftheothersections,exceptthatunderthe
contemplationoffeeling,mind,andphenomena,thecontemplationexternally,
apartfromthosepossessingtelepathicpowers,mustbeinferential.Itisalso
impossibleforthosewithouttelepathicpowerstodirectlycontemplatethe
breathingofanother,apartfromobservationoftheexpansionandcontractionof
thechest,socontemplationinthiscasetoomustbeinferential.
32Psexplainsthatthearisingnature(samudayadhamma)ofthebodycanbe
observedinitsconditionedoriginationthroughignorance,craving,kamma,and
food,aswellasinthemoment-by-momentoriginationofmaterialphenomenain
thebody.Inthecaseofmindfulnessofbreathing,anadditionalconditionisthe
physiologicalapparatusofrespiration.The“vanishingnature”(vayadhamma)of
thebodyisseeninthecessationofbodilyphenomenathroughthecessationof
theirconditionsaswellasinthemomentarydissolutionofbodilyphenomena.
33Theunderstandingofthebodilyposturesreferredtointhisexerciseisnotour
normalknowledgeofourbodilyactivity,butaclose,constant,andcareful
awarenessofthebodyineveryposition,coupledwithananalyticalexamination
intendedtodispelthedelusionofaselfastheagentofbodilymovement.
34Sampajañña,clearcomprehension,isanalyzedinthecommentariesintofour
types:(1)clearcomprehensionofthepurposeofone’saction;(2)clear
comprehensionofthesuitabilityofone’smeanstotheachievementofone’s
purpose;(3)clearcomprehensionofthedomain,thatis,notabandoningthe
subjectofmeditationduringone’sdailyroutine;and(4)clearcomprehensionof
reality,theawarenessthatbehindone’sactivitiesthereisnoabidingself.See
Soma,TheWayofMindfulness,pp.60–100;Nyanaponika,TheHeartof
BuddhistMeditation,pp.46–55.
35Adetailedexplanationofthispractice,accordingtothecommentarial
method,isatVism239–266;Ppn8:42–144.Themesenteryisafoldoftissue
thatanchorsthesmallintestinetothebackoftheabdominalwall.
36Thesefourelementsaretheprimaryattributesofmatter—theearthelement
(pathavīdhātu)issolidity;thewaterelement(āpodhātu),cohesion;thefire
element(tejodhātu),heat;andtheairelement(vāyodhātu),pressureor
distension.Foramoredetailedaccountofthecontemplationofelements,see
TextIX,4(3)(c).Forthecommentarialexplanation,seeVism347–72;Ppn
11:27–126.
37Thephrase“asthough”(seyyathāpi)suggeststhatthismeditation,andthose
tofollow,neednotbebaseduponactualobservationofadecayingcorpsebut
canbeperformedimaginatively.“Thissamebody”is,ofcourse,themeditators
ownbody.
38Eachofthefourtypesofcorpsementionedhere,andthethreetypesbelow,
maybetakenasaseparateandself-sufficientsubjectofmeditation;ortheentire
setmaybeusedasaprogressiveseriesforimpressingonthemindtheideaof
thebody’stransienceandinsubstantiality.Theprogressioncontinuesin§§26–
30.
39Feeling(vedanā)signifiestheaffectivequalityofexperience,bodilyand
mental,eitherpleasant,painful,orneither,i.e.,neutralfeeling.Examplesofthe
“carnal”and“spiritual”varietiesofthesefeelingsaregivenatMN137.9–15(III
217–19)undertherubricofthesixkindsofjoy,grief,andequanimitybased
respectivelyonthehouseholdlifeandrenunciation.
40Theconditionsforthearisingandvanishingoffeelingarethesameasthose
forthebody(seep.442(chapterVIII,n.32)exceptthatfoodisreplacedby
contact,sincecontactistheconditionforfeeling).
41Mind(citta)asanobjectofcontemplationreferstothegeneralstateandlevel
ofconsciousness.Sinceconsciousnessitselfisthebareknowingorcognizingof
anobject,thequalityofanystateofmindisdeterminedbyitsassociatedmental
factors,suchaslust,hate,anddelusionortheiropposites.
42Theexamplesofcittagiveninthispassagecontraststatesofmindof
wholesomeandunwholesome,ordevelopedandundevelopedcharacter.Thepair
“contracted”and“distracted,”however,consistsofunwholesomeopposites,the
formerduetodullnessanddrowsiness,thelattertorestlessnessandremorse.Ps
explains“exaltedmind”and“unsurpassablemind”asthemindpertainingtothe
meditativeattainments(jhānasandformlessstates),“unexaltedmind”and
“surpassablemind”asthemindpertainingtosense-sphereconsciousness.The
commentarysays“liberatedmind”shouldbeunderstoodasamindtemporarily
andpartlyfreedfromdefilementsthroughinsightorthejhānas.Sincethe
practiceofsatipaṭṭhānapertainstothepreliminaryphaseofthepath,the
commentaryholdsthatthislastcategoryshouldnotbeunderstoodasamind
liberatedbyattainmentofthesupramundanepaths;perhaps,however,this
interpretationshouldnotbeexcluded.
43Theconditionsforthearisingandvanishingofmindarethesameasthosefor
thebodyexceptthatfoodisreplacedbyname-and-form,theconditionfor
consciousness.
44Thefivehindrances(pañcanīvaraṇā):themaininnerimpedimentstothe
developmentofconcentrationandinsight.Seeabove,TextVIII,3.
45Seep.440(chapterVIII,n.147).
46Onthefiveaggregates,seepp.22,306–7,andTextsIX,4(1)(a)–(e).
47Theoriginandpassingawayofthefiveaggregatescanbeunderstoodintwo
ways:(1)throughtheiroriginationandcessationindependenceontheir
conditions(seeTextIX,4(1)(a));and(2)throughtheirdiscerniblearising,
change,andvanishing(seeSN22:37–38).Thetwowaysarenotmutually
exclusivebutcanbeconceptuallydistinguished.
48Onthesixsensebases,seeppp.309–11andTextsIX,4(2)(a)–(e).
49Thefetteristhedesireandlust(chandarāga)thatbindsthesensefacultiesto
theirobjects;seeSN35:232.
50Ontheenlightenmentfactors,seeTextVIII,9.
51ThePālicommentariesgivedetailedinformationabouttheconditionsthat
leadtothematurationoftheenlightenmentfactors.SeeSomaThera,TheWayof
Mindfulness,pp.134–149.
52ThelongerMahāsatipaṭṭhānaSuttainDNdefinesandelaboratesoneachof
theFourNobleTruths.SeetooMN141.
53Finalknowledge(aññā)isthearahant’sknowledgeofliberation.
Nonreturning(anāgāmitā)istheattainmentofthestateofanonreturner.
54Fromthispointon,thesuttacloselycorrespondswiththesecondpartofthe
ĀnāpānasatiSutta(MN118),thefirstpartofwhichisapreludetothe
instructionsonmindfulnessofbreathing.Thefirsttetradisidenticalwiththe
passageonmindfulnessofbreathinginthe“contemplationofthebody”section
oftheSatipaṭṭhānaSuttajustabove.
55The“mentalformation”(cittasaṅkhāra)isperceptionandfeeling;seeMN44
(I301)=SN41:6(IV293).
56Vism289;Ppn8:233:“Liberatingthemind”fromthehindrancesbythefirst
jhāna,andfromthegrosserjhānafactorsbyattainingsuccessivelyhigherjhānas;
andliberatingitfromthecognitivedistortionsbymeansofinsightknowledge.
57Vism290–291;Ppn8:234–37:“Contemplatingimpermanence”
(aniccānupassī)iscontemplatingthefiveaggregatesasimpermanentbecause
theyundergoriseandfallandchange,orbecausetheyundergomomentary
dissolution.Thistetraddealsentirelywithinsight,unliketheotherthree,which
canbeinterpretedbywayofbothserenityandinsight.
“Contemplatingfadingaway”(virāgānupassī)and“contemplatingcessation”
(nirodhānupassī) can be understood both as the insight into the momentary
destructionandcessationof phenomenaandas thesupramundanepath, which
realizesNibbānaasthefadingawayoflust(virāga,dispassion)andthecessation
offormations.“Contemplatingrelinquishment”(paṭinissaggānupassī)isgiving
up(pariccāga)orabandoning(pahāna)defilementsthroughinsightandentering
into(pakkhandana)Nibbānabyattainmentofthepath.
58Spk:Attentionisnotactuallyfeeling,butthisisaheadingoftheteaching.In
thistetrad,inthefirstphrasefeelingisspokenofindirectlyundertheheadingof
rapture(whichisnotafeeling),inthesecondphraseitisreferredtodirectlyas
happiness(=pleasantfeeling).Inthethirdandfourthphrases,feelingisincluded
inthementalformation.
59Spk:Havingseenwithwisdom,etc.Here,“longing”isjustthehindranceof
sensualdesire;by“dejection”thehindranceofillwillisshown.Thistetradis
statedbywayofinsightonly.Thesetwohindrancesarethefirstamongthefive
hindrances,thefirstsectioninthecontemplationofmentalphenomena.Thushe
saysthistoshowthebeginningofthecontemplationofmentalphenomena.By
“abandoning”ismeanttheknowledgethateffectsabandoning,e.g.,one
abandonstheperceptionofpermanencebycontemplationofimpermanence.By
thewords“havingseenwithwisdom”heshowsthesuccessionofinsightsthus:
“Withoneinsightknowledge(hesees)theknowledgeofabandonment
consistingintheknowledgesofimpermanence,dispassion,cessation,and
relinquishment;andthattoo(hesees)bystillanother.”Heisonewholookson
closelywithequanimity:oneissaidtolookonwithequanimity(atthemind)that
hasfaredalongthepath[Spk-pṭ:byneitherexertingnorrestrainingthemindof
meditativedevelopmentthathasproperlyfaredalongthemiddleway],andby
thepresentationasaunity[Spk-pṭ:sincethereisnothingfurthertobedonein
thatrespectwhenthemindhasreachedone-pointedness].One“looksonwith
equanimity”attheobject.
60Satisambojjhaṅga.Bojjhaṅgaiscompoundedfrombodhi+aṅga.AtSN
46:5,theyareexplainedasthefactorsthatleadtoenlightenment.Thethree
phrasesusedtodescribethecultivationofeachenlightenmentfactorcanbe
understoodtodepictthreesuccessivestagesofdevelopment.“Hearouses”isits
initialarousal;“hedevelops”isitsgradualmaturation;and“itgoestofulfillment
bydevelopment”isitsculmination.
61Dhammavicayasambojjhaṅga.AtSN46:2(V66),the“nutriment”forthe
arisingofthisfactorofenlightenmentissaidtobefrequentlygivingcareful
attentiontowholesomeandunwholesomementalphenomena,blamableand
blamelessstates,inferiorandsuperiorstates,darkandbrightstateswiththeir
counterparts.Althoughthisfactorofenlightenmentisidentifiedwithpaññāor
wisdom,theabovepassagesuggeststhatitsinitialfunctionistodiscriminate
betweenthegoodandbadmentalphenomenathatbecomeapparentwiththe
deepeningofmindfulness.
62SāriputtawasoneoftheBuddha’stwochiefdisciples,theonewhoexcelled
inwisdom.Forabiography,seeNyanaponikaandHecker,GreatDisciplesofthe
Buddha,chapter1.
63“I-making”(ahaṅkāra)isthefunctionofviewofself;“mine-making”
(mamaṅkāra),ofcraving.Therootconceitistheconceit“Iam”(asmimāna),so
the“underlyingtendencytoconceit”isalsoresponsiblefor“I-making.”
64Saññāvedayitanirodha.Alsoknownasnirodhasamāpatti,theattainmentof
cessation,thisisaspecialmeditativeattainmentsaidtobeaccessiblesolelyto
nonreturnersandarahants.Asitsnamesuggests,itinvolvesthetotalcessationof
perceptualandaffectivefunctions,andaccordingtothecommentaries,of
consciousnessandallitsassociatedmentalfactors.Foradetaileddiscussion
accordingtothecommentarialsystem,seeVism702–9;Ppn23:16–52.
CHAPTERIX:SHININGTHELIGHTOF
WISDOM
1.Unfortunately,theconnectionbetweenthenounandtheverb,soobvious
inthePāli,islostwhenpaññāistranslatedas“wisdom”andtheverb
rendered“oneunderstands.”Toavoidthis,othertranslatorshave
preferredrenderingsforpaññāthatpreserveavisibleconnection
betweenthenounandtheverb,forexample,“understanding”(Bhikkhu
Ñāṇamoli)or“discernment”(ThānissaroBhikkhu).
2.E.g.,atSN22:5,35:99,35:160,56:1.
3.Thiscorrelationiscommonlymadeinthecommentarieswhenthey
commentonthisformula.
4.Thecommentarialinterpretation,detailedandhighlytechnical,isfound
inVism,chapter17.
5.InthePālicommentaries,thesetwoelementsofNibbānaarecalled
respectivelykilesa-parinibbāna,theextinctionofdefilements,and
khandha-parinibbāna,theextinctionoftheaggregates.
6.Thetwowordsareactuallyderivedfromdifferentverbalroots.Nibbuta
ispastparticipleofnir+vṛ;whichhasacorrespondingnounnibbuti,
usedasasynonymforNibbāna.Nibbānaisfromnir+.
7.Foranamplificationoftheoceansimile,seeSN44:1.
8.Pātimokkha:thecodeoftrainingrulesgoverningtheconductofafully
ordainedmonk.
9.Ps:Rightviewistwofold:mundane(lokiya)andsupramundane
(lokuttara).Mundanerightviewisagaintwofold:theviewthatkamma
producesitsfruits,whichmaybeheldbothbyBuddhistsandnon-
Buddhists,andtheviewinconformitywiththeFourNobleTruths,which
isexclusivetotheBuddha’steaching.Supramundanerightviewisthe
understandingoftheFourNobleTruthsattainedbypenetratingtothe
fourpathsandfruits(seep.373).ThequestionposedbySāriputta
concernsthesekha,thediscipleinhighertraining.
10.Thesearethetencoursesofunwholesomeaction.Foramoredetailed
explanation,seeTextV,1(2).Theiropposites,justbelow,aretheten
coursesofwholesomeaction,alsoelaboratedinthesametext.
11.Psexplainsthedisciple’sunderstandingofthesefourtermsbywayof
theFourNobleTruthsthus:allthecoursesofaction(unwholesomeand
wholesome)arethetruthofsuffering;thewholesomeandunwholesome
rootsarethetruthoftheorigin;thenon-occurrenceofbothactionsand
theirrootsisthetruthofcessation;andthenoblepaththatrealizes
cessationisthetruthofthepath.Tothisextentanoblediscipleatoneof
thefirstthreeplaneshasbeendescribed—onewhohasarrivedat
supramundanerightviewbuthasnotyeteliminatedalldefilements.
12.Pssaysthatthepassagefrom“heentirelyabandonstheunderlying
tendencytolust”until“hemakesanendofsuffering”showsthework
accomplishedbythepathsofthenonreturnerandarahantship.Thepath
ofthenonreturnereliminatestheunderlyingtendenciestosensuallust
andaversion;thepathofarahantshipremovestheunderlyingtendencyto
theviewandconceit“Iam.”Pssaystheexpression“underlyingtendency
totheviewandconceit‘Iam’”(asmītidiṭṭhimānānusaya)shouldbe
interpretedtomeantheunderlyingtendencytoconceitthatissimilartoa
viewbecause,liketheviewofself,itoccursgraspingthenotion“Iam.”
13.Nutriment(āhāra)istobeunderstoodhereinabroadsenseasa
prominentconditionfortheindividuallife-process.Physicalfoodisan
importantconditionforthephysicalbody,contactforfeeling,mental
volitionforconsciousness,andconsciousnessforname-and-form,the
psychophysicalorganisminitstotality.Cravingiscalledtheoriginof
nutrimentsincethecravingofthepreviousexistenceisthesourceofthe
presentindividualitywithitsdependenceuponandcontinual
consumptionofthefournutrimentsinthisexistence.Foranannotated
compilationofcanonicalandcommentarialtextsonthenutriments,see
NyanaponikaThera,TheVisionofDhamma,pp.211–28.
14.Thenexttwelvesectionspresent,inreverseorder,afactor-by-factor
examinationofdependentorigination.SeetooTextsIX,4(4)(a)–(f).
15.Thethreekindsofexistence(bhava):onthethreerealmsofexistence,
seepp.149–50.Intheformulaofdependentorigination,“existence”
signifiesboththeplanesofrebirthandthetypesofkammathatproduce
rebirthintothoseplanes.Theformerisknowntechnicallyas
upapattibhava,“rebirth-existence,”thelatteraskammabhava,
“karmicallyactiveexistence.”
16.Clingingtorulesandobservances(sīlabbatupādāna)istheadherenceto
theviewthatpurificationcanbeachievedbyadoptingcertainexternal
rulesorfollowingcertainobservances,particularlyofasceticself-
discipline;clingingtoadoctrineofself(attavādupādāna)isholdingone
oranotheroftheviewsofselfthatoriginatefromidentityview(see
particularlytheBrahmajālaSutta,DN1);clingingtoviews
(diṭṭhupādāna)istheclingingtoanyotherview(thanoneofthetwo
enumeratedseparately).Clinginginanyofitsvarietiesisastrengthening
ofcraving,itscondition.
17.Cravingforphenomena(dhammataṇhā)isthecravingforallobjectsof
consciousnessexcepttheobjectsofthefiveclassesofsense
consciousness.Exampleswouldbethecravingassociatedwithfantasies
andmentalimagery,withabstractideasandintellectualgratification,and
soforth.
18.Contact(phassa)isthecomingtogether(saṅgati)ofinternalsensebase
(sensefaculty),externalsensebase(object),andconsciousness.
19.Thetermnāmarūpawasofpre-Buddhisticorigins.Itwasusedinthe
Upaniṣadstorepresentthedifferentiatedmanifestationofbrahman,the
nondualabsoluterealityappearingintheguiseofmultiplicity.Brahman
apprehendedbythesensesasdiversifiedappearancesisform(rūpa);
brahmanapprehendedbythoughtthroughdiversifiednamesorconcepts
isname(nāma).TheBuddhaadoptedthisexpressionandgaveita
meaninggovernedbyhisownsystem.Herenameandformbecome,
respectively,thecognitiveandphysicalsidesofindividualexistence.
IntheBuddha’ssystem,rūpaisdefinedasthefourgreatelementsand
theformderivedfromthem.Formisbothinternaltotheperson(=the
bodywithitssenses)andexternal(=thephysicalworld).TheNikāyasdo
notexplainderivedform(upādāyarūpa),buttheAbhidhammaanalyzes
it into twenty-four kinds of secondary material phenomena, which
includethesensitivematterofthefivesensefacultiesandfourofthefive
sense objects (the tactile object is identified with three of the great
elements—earth,heat,andair—whicheachexhibittangibleproperties).
ThoughIrendernāmaasname,thisshouldnotbetakentooliterally.
Nāmaistheassemblageofmentalfactorsinvolvedincognition:feeling,
perception, volition, contact, and attention (vedanā, saññā, cetanā,
phassa, manasikāra). These are probably called “name” because they
contribute to the conceptual designation of objects. It should be noted
thatintheNikāyas,nāmarūpadoesnotincludeconsciousness(viññāṇa).
Consciousness is the condition for nāmarūpa, just as the latter is the
conditionforconsciousness,sothatthetwoaremutuallydependent(see
TextII,3(3)).
20.Mind-consciousness(manoviññāṇa)comprisesallconsciousnessexcept
thefivetypesofsenseconsciousnessjustmentioned.Itincludes
consciousnessofmentalimages,abstractideas,andinternalstatesof
mind,aswellastheconsciousnessthatreflectsuponsenseobjects.
21.Inthecontextofthedoctrineofdependentorigination,volitional
formations(saṅkhārā)arewholesomeandunwholesomevolitions.The
bodilyformationisvolitionexpressedthroughthebody;theverbal
formation,volitionexpressedbyspeech;andthementalformation,
volitionthatdoesnotreachbodilyorverbalexpression.
22.Itshouldbenotedthatwhileignoranceisaconditionforthetaints,the
taints—includingthetaintofignorance—areinturnaconditionfor
ignorance.Pssaysthatthisconditioningofignorancebyignorance
impliesthattheignoranceinanyoneexistenceisconditionedbythe
ignoranceintheprecedingexistence.Sincethisisso,theconclusion
followsthatnofirstpointcanbediscoveredforignorance,andthusthat
saṃsāraiswithoutdiscerniblebeginning.
23.The“fourphases”(or“fourturnings,”catuparivaṭṭa)are:aggregate,
origin,cessation,andthewaytocessation,asappliedtoeachofthefive
aggregates.
24.Thispassagedescribesthetrainees(sekha).Theyhavedirectlyknown
theFourNobleTruthsandarepracticingfortheultimatecessationofthe
fiveaggregates,thatis,forNibbāna.
25.Thispassagedescribesthearahants.AccordingtoDNII63–64,the
roundofexistenceturnsasabasisformanifestationanddesignationonly
insofarasthereisconsciousnesstogetherwithname-and-form;when
bothconsciousnessandname-and-formcease,thereisnoroundtoserve
asabasisformanifestationanddesignation.
26.Chacetanākāyā.Thefactthatthereisadifferencebetweenthenameof
theaggregate,saṅkhārakkhandha,andthetermofdefinition,cetanā,
suggeststhatthisaggregatehasawiderrangethantheothers.Inthe
Abhidhammaandthecommentaries,itistreatedasan“umbrella
category”forclassifyingallthementalfactorsmentionedinthesuttas
apartfromfeelingandperception.Volitionismentionedinthedefinition
becauseitisthemostimportantfactorinthisaggregate,notbecauseitis
itsexclusiveconstituent.
27.Itissignificantthatwhilecontactistheconditionforthearisingofthe
threeaggregatesoffeeling,perception,andvolitionalformations,name-
and-formistheconditionforthearisingofconsciousness.Thissupports
thestatementintheten-factoredformulaofdependentorigination,found
inTextII,3(3),thatname-and-formistheconditionforconsciousness.
28.AccordingtoSpk,desire(chanda)hereissynonymouswithcraving
(taṇhā).Thisissaidbecausethefiveaggregatesinanygivenexistence
originatefromtheresidualcravingfornewexistenceoftheimmediately
precedingexistence.
29.Clingingisnotthesameasthe“fiveaggregatessubjecttoclinging”
becausetheaggregatesarenotreducibletoclinging.Yetclingingisnot
somethingapartfromthe“fiveaggregatessubjecttoclinging”because
thereisnoclingingthatdoesnothavetheaggregatesasitssupportand
object.
30.On“I-making,mine-making,andtheunderlyingtendencytoconceit,”
seep.445(chapterIX,n.63).
31.ThisistheseconddiscourseoftheBuddha,accordingtothenarrativeof
theBuddha’steachingcareeratVinI13–14.Thefivebhikkhusarethe
firstfivedisciples,whoatthispointarestilltrainees(sekha).The
Buddha’spurposeinteachingthisdiscourseistoleadthemto
arahantship.
32.Thesuttaofferstwo“arguments”forthethesisofnonself.Thefirst
contendsthattheaggregatesarenonselfonthegroundthatwecannot
exercisemasteryoverthem.Sincewecannotbendtheaggregatestoour
will,theyareall“subjecttoaffliction”andthereforecannotbe
consideredourself.Thesecondargument,introducedjustbelow,posits
thecharacteristicofnonselfonthebasisoftheothertwocharacteristics.
Whateverisimpermanentisinsomewayboundupwithsuffering;
whateverisimpermanentandboundupwithsufferingcannotbe
identifiedasourself.
33.Spkexplainsatlengthhowform(i.e.,thebody)islikealumpoffoam
(pheṇapiṇḍa).Igivemerelythehighlights:Asalumpoffoamlacksany
substance(sāra),soformlacksanysubstancethatispermanent,stable,a
self;asthelumpoffoamisfullofholesandfissuresandtheabodeof
manycreatures,sotooform;asthelumpoffoam,afterexpanding,
breaksup,sodoesform,whichispulverizedinthemouthofdeath.
34.Spk:Abubble(bubbuḷa)isfeebleandcannotbegrasped,foritbreaks
upassoonasitisseized;sotoofeelingisfeebleandcannotbegrasped
aspermanentandstable.Asabubblearisesandceasesinadropofwater
anddoesnotlastlong,sotoowithfeeling:billionsoffeelingsariseand
ceaseinthetimeofafingersnap.Asabubblearisesindependenceon
conditions,sofeelingarisesindependenceonasensebase,anobject,the
defilements,andcontact.
35.Spk:Perceptionislikeamirage(marīcikā)inthesensethatitis
insubstantial,foronecannotgraspamiragetodrinkorbatheorfilla
pitcher.Asamiragedeceivesthemultitude,sodoesperception,which
enticespeoplewiththeideathatthecolorfulobjectisbeautiful,
pleasurable,andpermanent.
36.Spk:Asabananatrunk(kadalikkhandha)isanassemblageofmany
sheaths,eachwithitsowncharacteristic,sotheaggregateofvolitional
formationsisanassemblageofmanyphenomena,eachwithitsown
characteristic.
37.Spk:Consciousnessislikeamagicalillusion(māyā)inthesensethatit
isinsubstantialandcannotbegrasped.Consciousnessisevenmore
transientandfleetingthanamagicalillusion.Foritgivestheimpression
thatapersoncomesandgoes,standsandsits,withthesamemind,but
themindisdifferentineachoftheseactivities.Consciousnessdeceives
themultitudelikeamagicalillusion.
38.Thissutta,sometimescalled“TheFireSermon,”isthethirddiscourse
recordedinthenarrativeoftheBuddha’sministry,atVinI34–35.
Accordingtothissource,thethousandmonkstowhomthesuttawas
addressedhadformerlybeenfire-worshippingascetics,andthusthe
Buddhausedthisthemebecauseitcorrespondedwiththeirbackground.
ForanaccountofhowtheBuddhaconvertedthem,seeÑāṇamoli,The
LifeoftheBuddha,pp.54–60,64–69.
39.TheBuddhaisspeakingtoPukkusāti,amonkwhohadgoneforthoutof
faithintheBuddhawithouteverhavingseenhimbefore.Whenthesutta
opens,theBuddhaarrivesatapottersshed,intendingtospendthenight
there.Pukkusātihasalreadybeenlodgingintheshedandgreetsthe
Buddhainafriendlyway,unawarethatthisishismaster.Without
revealinghisidentitytoPukkusāti,theBuddhainitiatesaconversation,
whichturnsintoadiscourseonthedevelopmentofwisdom.
40.Ps:Thisisthesixthelement,which“remains”inthatithasyettobe
expoundedbytheBuddhaandpenetratedbyPukkusāti.Hereitis
explainedastheconsciousnessthataccomplishestheworkofinsight
contemplationontheelements.Undertheheadingofconsciousness,the
contemplationoffeelingisalsointroduced.
41.Thispassageshowstheconditionalityoffeelinganditsimpermanence
throughthecessationofitscondition.
42.Idappaccayatā.Thewordisacompoundofidaṃ,this,withpaccaya,
condition,augmentedbytheabstractnountermination–.Thisisa
synonymforpaṭiccasamuppāda.SeeTextII,4§19,whichlikewise
connectstherealizationofdependentoriginationwiththeBuddha’s
enlightenment.
43.Spk:Actuality(tathatā)meanstheoccurrenceofeachparticular
phenomenonwhenitsassemblageofappropriateconditionsispresent.
Inerrancy(avitathatā)meansthatonceitsconditionshavereached
completenessthereisnonon-occurrence,evenforamoment,ofthe
phenomenonduetobeproducedfromthoseconditions.Invariability
(anaññathatā)meansthatthereisnoproductionofonephenomenonby
anothersconditions.
44.Dhammeñāṇa.ThisisthedirectknowledgeoftheFourNobleTruths
arisenthroughpenetrationofNibbānaasthetruthofcessation.
45.Anvayeñāṇa.Thisisaninferenceextendingtothepastandthefuture,
basedontheimmediatediscernmentoftheconditionalrelationship
obtainingbetweenanypairoffactors.
46.Spk:Theideaofexistence(atthitā)iseternalism(sassata);theideaof
nonexistence(natthitā)isannihilationism(uccheda).Spk-pṭ:Theideaof
existenceiseternalismbecauseitmaintainsthattheentireworld(of
personalexistence)existsforever.Thenotionofnonexistenceis
annihilationismbecauseitmaintainsthattheentireworlddoesnotexist
(forever)butiscutoff.
Inviewoftheseexplanationsitwouldbemisleadingtotranslatethe
two terms, atthitā and natthitā, simply as “existence” and
“nonexistence.” In the present passage atthitā and natthitā are abstract
nounsformedfromtheverbsatthiandnatthi.Itisthusthemetaphysical
assumptions implicit in such abstractions that are at fault, not the
ascriptions of existence and nonexistence themselves. I have tried to
conveythis sense of metaphysical abstraction, conveyed in Pāli by the
termination-tā,byrenderingthetwotermstheideaofexistence”and
theideaofnonexistence,”respectively.
Unfortunately, atthitā and bhava both had to be rendered by
“existence,”which obscures the fact that in Pāli they are derived from
different roots. While atthitā is the notion of existence in the abstract,
bhava is concrete individual existence in one or another of the three
realms.Forthesakeofmarkingthedifference,bhavamighthavebeen
rendered“being,”butthisEnglishwordistoolikelytosuggest“Being,”
theabsoluteobjectofphilosophicalspeculation.Itdoesnotsufficiently
conveythesenseofconcretenessintrinsictobhava.
47.Spk:Theoriginoftheworld:theproductionoftheworldofformations.
Thereisnoideaofnonexistenceinregardtotheworld:theredoesnot
occurinhimtheannihilationistviewthatmightariseinregardto
phenomenaproducedandmademanifestintheworldofformations,
holding“Theydonotexist.”Spk-pṭ:Theannihilationistviewmightarise
inregardtotheworldofformationsthus:“Onaccountoftheannihilation
andperishingofbeingsrightwheretheyare,thereisnopersistingbeing
orphenomenon.”Italsoincludesthewrongview,havingthose
formationsasitsobject,thatholds:“Therearenobeingswhoare
reborn.”Thatviewdoesnotoccurinhim;foroneseeingwithright
understandingtheproductionandoriginationoftheworldofformations
independenceonsuchdiverseconditionsaskamma,ignorance,craving,
etc.,thatannihilationistviewdoesnotoccur,sinceoneseesthe
uninterruptedproductionofformations.
Spk:Thecessationoftheworld:thedissolutionofformations.Thereis
noideaofexistenceinregardtotheworld:Theredoesnotoccurinhim
theeternalistviewthatmightariseinregardtophenomenaproducedand
mademanifestintheworldofformations,holding“Theyexist.”Spk-pṭ:
The eternalist view might arise in regard to the world of formations,
takingittoexistatalltimes,owingtotheapprehensionofidentityinthe
uninterruptedcontinuumoccurringinacause-effectrelationship.Butthat
view does not occur in him; because he sees the cessation of the
successively arisen phenomena and the arising of successively new
phenomena,theeternalistviewdoesnotoccur.
Spk: Further, “the origin of the world” is direct-order conditionality
(anulomapaccayākāra ); “the cessation of the world” is reverse-order
conditionality (paṭiloma-paccayākāra). [Spk-pṭ: “Direct-order
conditionality”istheconditioningefficiencyoftheconditionsinrelation
totheirowneffects;“reverse-orderconditionality”isthecessationofthe
effectsthroughthecessationoftheirrespectivecauses.]Forinseeingthe
dependency of the world, when one sees the continuation of the
conditionally arisen phenomena owing to the continuation of their
conditions,theannihilationistview,whichmightotherwisehavearisen,
doesnotoccur.Andinseeingthecessationofconditions,whenonesees
the cessation of the conditionally arisen phenomena owing to the
cessationoftheirconditions,theeternalistview,whichmightotherwise
havearisen,doesnotoccur.
48.Spkexplainsdukkhahereas“themerefiveaggregatessubjectto
clinging”(pañc’upādānakkhandhamattameva).Thuswhatthenoble
disciplesees,whenhereflectsuponhispersonalexistence,isnotaself
orasubstantiallyexistentpersonbutamereassemblageofconditioned
phenomenaarisingandpassingawaythroughtheconditioningprocessof
dependentorigination.
49.Iinterpretwhatoneintends(ceteti)andwhatoneplans(pakappeti)here
asrepresentingvolitionalformations(saṅkhārā),thesecondfactorinthe
formulaofdependentorigination.Whateveronehasatendencytoward
(anuseti)impliestheunderlyingtendencies(anusaya),primarilythe
tendenciestowardignoranceandcraving,hencethefirstandeighth
factorsintheformula.Whenonepassesawaywiththetendenciestoward
ignoranceandcravingstillintact,one’sintentionsandplans—the
concretemanifestationsofcravingintheformofvolitionalactivities—
becomethebasisforconsciousnesstocontinueon,becomeestablishedin
afresh“name-and-form,”andinitiatetheproductionofanewexistence.
Thisistheeventofbirth,followedbyaging,death,andtheothertypesof
sufferingbetweenbirthanddeath.
50.Althoughitisnotpossibletohavetheunderlyingtendencieswithout
intentionsandplans,thispassagemightbeseentohavetherhetorical
purposeofemphasizingtheroleoftheunderlyingtendenciesin
sustainingtheprocessofrebirth.ButaccordingtoSpk,thepassageis
intendedtoshowthatforaninsightmeditatorwhohasovercome
unwholesomethoughts,thedangerofrebirthstillexistsaslongasthe
underlyingtendenciesremainintact.
51.Thisparagraphshowsthearahant.
52.Tathāniavitathānianaññathāni.Seepp.449–50,note43.Spk:”Actual
inthesenseofnotdepartingfromtherealnatureofthings;forsuffering
isstatedtobejustsuffering.Unerring,becauseofnotfalsifyingitsreal
nature;forsufferingdoesnotbecomenonsuffering.Invariable,because
ofnotarrivingatadifferentnature;forsufferingdoesnotarriveatthe
natureoftheorigin(ofsuffering),etc.Thesamemethodfortheother
truths.”Iunderstandanaññathainthesimplerandmorestraightforward
sensethatthetruthsare“invariable”becausetheynevervaryfromthe
waythingsreallyare.
53.Bhavanetti.Thatwhichleadstonewexistence,i.e.,cravingfor
existence.
54.Alltheseleavesaresmallanddelicate.Theleavesmentionedinthe
counterpartpassagebelowarebroadandsturdy.
55.SpkidentifieshimasSāriputta’snephew.
56.Nippapañcaṃ.Spk:Becauseitisnotproliferated(elaborated)by
craving,conceit,andviews.
57.Thenegationofthephysicalelementscanbetakentodeny,notonlythe
presenceofmatterinNibbāna,butalsotheidentificationofNibbānawith
theexperiencesofthejhānas,whichstillpertaintotherealmofform.
Thefollowingfouritemsnegatetheobjectsofthefourformless
meditativeattainmentsinNibbāna.
58.InPāli,diṭṭha,“seen,”ishereclearlyintendedasanantithesistodiṭṭhi,
“view.”
CHAPTERX:THEPLANESOFREALIZATION
1Theterminologyof“path”and“fruition”isacommentarialwayofdrawing
thedistinction.Thesuttasthemselvesdonotusetheschemeoffour“paths”but
speakonlyofonepath,theNobleEightfoldPaththatleadstothecessationof
suffering.Thisisalsocalledthearahattamagga,thepathtoarahantship,butina
broadsense,asthepathtothehighestgoal,notinthenarrowsenseofthepath
precedingthefruitofarahantship.However,thesuttasdomakeadistinction
betweenthepersonpracticingfortheattainmentofaparticularfruit(phala-
sacchikiriyāyapaṭipanna)andthepersonwhohasattainedthestagethatresults
fromthispractice(seeTextX,1(1)).Basedonthisdistinction,thecommentarial
terminologyofpathandfruitisusefulasaconcisewayofreferringtothetwo
phasesoftheNikāyascheme.
2Myexplanationoftheonce-returnersattenuationoflust,hatred,and
defilementsisbasedonthecommentaries.Apartfromthestandardformula,the
suttasthemselvessayverylittleabouttheonce-returner.
3Itisalsoimportanttonotethatthesuttasimplythatthedhammānusārīand
saddhānusārīremainthusforanextendedperiodoftime.Thepositionofthe
suttasseemstocontradictthecommentarialideathatapath-attainerissuchonly
forasinglemind-moment.Ifthelatterwerethecase,thiswouldmeanthata
dhammānusārīandsaddhānusārīaresuchforonlyasinglemind-moment,and
thisseemshardtosquarewithsuttastatementstotheeffectthattheyreceive
gifts,resorttolodgingsintheforest,etc.
4Thecommentarialmethodofexplanationstipulatesthatthemeditatoremerges
fromthejhānaattainmentandpracticesinsightcontemplationwithamindmade
sharpandsupplebythejhāna.However,thesuttasthemselvessaynothingabout
emergingfromthejhāna.Ifonereadsthesuttasalone,withoutthe
commentaries,itseemsasifthemeditatorexaminesthefactorswithinthejhāna
itself.
5Asthearahantshaveachievedliberationfromtheroundofexistence,itis
impossibletopointtoanyplacewithintheroundwheretheymightappear;
hencetheyhavenofutureroundformanifestation.
6The“fivelowerfetters”(pañc’orambhāgiyānisaṃyojanāni)are:identityview,
doubt,graspingofrulesandobservances,sensuallust,andillwill.Thosewho
arespontaneouslyreborn(opapātika)takerebirthwithoutdependenceona
motherandfather.
7The“threefetters”arethefirstthreeofthefivefetters,justabove.“Fixedin
destiny”(niyata)meansthatthestream-entererisboundtoreachliberationinat
mostsevenmorelivespassedeitherinthehumanworldorincelestialrealms.
Enlightenment(sambodhi)isthearahant’sfullandfinalknowledgeoftheFour
NobleTruths.
8Onthedistinctionbetweenthesetwotypes,seebelow,TextX,1(5)§§20–21
andTextX,2(2).
9Pssaysthatthisreferstopersonsdevotedtothepracticeofinsightwhohave
notreachedanysupramundanerealizationbutpossessstrongconvictioninthe
truthoftheDhamma.Thewordssaddhāmattaṃpemamattaṃmighthavebeen
translated“merefaith,merelove,”butsuchqualitiescouldnotguaranteea
rebirthinheaven.Itthusseemsnecessarytotakethesuffix–mattaasimplyinga
sufficientamountofthesequalities,notsimplytheirmereexistence.
10TheBuddhaisherespeakingwiththewandererVacchagotta(seeText
IX,5(6)).PssaysthatVacchagottathoughttheBuddhamayhavebeentheonly
onewithinhiscommunitytohaveattainedthefinalgoal.
11Thisquestionandtheonein§11concernthenonreturner.Notethat
nonreturnersobservecelibacy.
12Thisquestionandtheonein§12concernstream-enterersandonce-returners.
Sincetheyaredescribedasenjoyingsensualpleasures,thismeansthattheyare
notobligedtoobservecelibacy.
13Ubhatobhāgavimutta.Ps:Heisliberatedinbothwaysbecauseheisliberated
fromtheformbodybytheformlessattainmentsandfromthementalbodybythe
pathofarahantship.Thedualliberationofthe“both-ways-liberated”arahant
shouldnotbeconfusedwiththe“taintlessliberationofmind,liberationby
wisdom”(anāsavācetovimuttipaññāvimutti),whichissharedbyallarahants,
regardlessofwhetherornottheyattaintheformlessattainments.
14Paññāvimutta.Pssaysthisincludesthosewhoattainanyofthefourjhānasas
wellasthedry-insightarahant.Adry-insightarahantisnotexplicitlyrecognized
intheNikāyas.
15Kāyasakkhī.Thisincludesallthosefrompersonsonthepathtoarahantship
downtostream-entererswhoattaintheformlessattainments.
16Diṭṭhippatta.Thisincludesthesameclasseswhodonotattaintheformless
attainmentsandinwhomwisdomisthedominantfaculty.
17Saddhāvimutta.Thisincludesthesameclassesinwhomfaithisthedominant
faculty.
18Dhammānusārī.Thistypeandthenext,thesaddhānusārī,arethetwokinds
ofpersonspracticingforrealizationofthefruitofstream-entry.Seep.375and
TextX,2(2).
19Sammattaniyāma:thesupramundaneNobleEightfoldPath.
20Contrarytothecommentaries,whichholdthatthepath-attainerrealizesthe
fruitimmediatelyafterattainingthepath,theNikāyassaymerelythatonewho
reachesthestageofDhamma-followerorfaith-follower(correspondingtothe
commentarialnotionofpath-attainer)willrealizethefruitwithinthissamelife
—butnotnecessarilyinthenextmind-moment.Thetwopositionsmightbe
reconciledifweseethepathoftheDhamma-followerandfaith-followeras
extendedintimebutreachingitsclimaxinaninstantaneousbreakthroughthatis
immediatelyfollowedbyrealizationofthefruit.
21Thisstatementmakesitclearhowthestream-entererdiffersfromthoseonthe
pathtostream-entry.Thefaith-followeracceptstheteachingontrust(witha
limiteddegreeofunderstanding),theDhamma-followeracceptsitthrough
investigation(withagreaterdegreeofunderstanding);butthestream-entererhas
directlyknownandseentheteaching.
22ThebreakthroughtotheDhamma(dhammābhisamaya)andthegainingofthe
visionoftheDhamma(dhammacakkhupaṭilābha)aresynonymssignifyingthe
attainmentofstream-entry.
23Aveccappasāda.Spkexplainsthisasunshakableconfidencegainedthrough
whathasbeenattained,namely,stream-entry.
24Thehells,theanimalrealm,andthesphereofafflictedspiritsarethemselves
theplaneofmisery,thebaddestinations,andthelowerworld.
25Identity(sakkāya)isthecompositeofthefiveaggregatesthatweidentifyas
our“self.”ThecessationofidentityisNibbāna.
26Upadhi.Inthepresentcontext,thiswordseemstomeanmaterialpossessions.
27Oftheseelevenattributes,“impermanent”and“disintegrating”illustratethe
characteristicofimpermanence;“alien,”“empty,”and“nonself,”the
characteristicofnonself;theothersix,thecharacteristicofsuffering.
28Ps:Heturnshismindawayfromthefiveaggregatesincludedwithinthe
jhāna,whichhehasseentobemarkedwiththethreecharacteristics.The
“deathlesselement”(amatadhātu)isNibbāna.First,he“directshismindtoit”
withtheinsightconsciousness,havinghearditpraisedas“peacefuland
sublime,”andsoforth.Then,withthesupramundanepath,he“directshismind
toit”bymakingitanobjectandpenetratingitas“peacefulandsublime,”andso
forth.
29Dhammarāgenadhammanandiyā.ItseemsthatthisdesirefortheDhamma
anddelightintheDhammadotwothingssimultaneously:(1)becausetheyare
directedtowardtheDhamma,theypropelthediscipletothedestructionofthe
fivelowerfetters;(2)becausetheyarestilldesireanddelight,theypreventthe
attainmentofarahantship.
30Here,intheformlessattainments,thesuttamentionsonlythefourmental
aggregates.Theaggregateofformisexcluded.
31Thesearemeditationsubjectsthatleadtodisenchantmentanddispassion.The
unattractivenessofthebodyisatTextVIII,8§10;thereflectiononthe
repulsivenessoffoodisexplainedatVism341–47(Ppn11:1–26);theperception
ofdeath,atVism229–39(Ppn8:1–41);andtheperceptionofdiscontentwiththe
entireworld,andthecontemplationofimpermanenceinallformations,atAN
10:60;V111.
32AtANV110,theperceptionofabandonment(pahānasaññā)isexplainedas
theremovalofdefiledthoughts.AtANV110–11,theperceptionofdispassion
(virāgasaññā)andtheperceptionofcessation(virāgasaññā)arebothexplained
asreflectionsontheattributesofNibbāna.
33Spkexplainstheantarāparinibbāyī(“onewhoattainsNibbānainthe
interval”)asonereborninthepureabodeswhoattainsarahantshipduringthe
firsthalfofthelifespan.Thistypeissubdividedintothree,dependingon
whetherarahantshipisreached:(1)ontheverydayofrebirth;(2)afteroneor
twohundredeonshaveelapsed;or(3)afterfourhundredeonshaveelapsed.The
upahaccaparinibbāyī(“onewhoattainsNibbānauponlanding”)isexplainedas
onewhoattainsarahantshipafterpassingthefirsthalfofthelifespan.ForSpk,
theasaṅkhāraparinibbāyī(“onewhoattainswithoutexertion”)andthe
sasaṅkhāraparinibbāyī(“onewhoattainswithexertion”)thenbecometwo
modesinwhichthefirsttwotypesofnonreturnersattainthegoal,respectively,
easilyandwithoutstrongeffort,andwithdifficultyandstrongeffort.However,
thisaccountofthefirsttwotypesdisregardstheliteralmeaningoftheirnames
andalsooverridesthesequentialandmutuallyexclusivenatureofthefivetypes
asdelineatedelsewhereinthesuttas.
Ifweunderstandthetermantarāparinibbāyīliterally,asitseemsweshould,it
thenmeansonewhoattainsNibbānaintheintervalbetweentwolives,perhaps
while existing in a subtle body in the intermediate state. The
upahaccaparinibbāyīthenbecomesonewhoattainsNibbāna“uponlanding”or
“striking ground” in the new existence, i.e., almost immediately after taking
rebirth. The next two terms designate two types who attain arahantship in the
courseofthenextlife,distinguishedbytheamountofefforttheymustmaketo
winthegoal.Thelast,theuddhaṃsotaakaniṭṭhagāmī,isonewhotakesrebirth
insuccessivepureabodes,completesthefulllifespanineach,andfinallyattains
arahantship in the akaniṭṭha realm, the highest pure abode.This interpretation,
thoughcontraryto the Pālicommentaries,seems to beconfirmedbyAN7:52
(IV70–74),inwhichthesimileoftheflamingchipsuggeststhattheseventypes
(includingthethreekindsofantarāparinibbāyī)aremutuallyexclusiveandhave
beengradedaccordingtothesharpnessoftheirfaculties.
34Indeclaringthathedoesnotrecognizeaselforthebelongingsofaself
amongthefiveaggregates,Khemakahasimplicitlydeclaredthathehasattained
atleastthelevelofastream-enterer.Buttheothermonksdidnotrealizethatall
thenoblepersonssharethisunderstandingandassumedthiswastheunique
realizationofthearahant.ThustheymisinterpretedKhemaka’sstatementas
insinuatingthathehadattainedarahantship.
35Althoughallthreeeds.ofSNthatIconsulted(Be,Ce,andEe)andbotheds.
ofSpk(BeandCe)readasmītiadhigataṃ,Isuspectthisisanarchaic
corruptionthathasgainedcurrency.Iproposereadingasmītiavigataṃ.The
passageclarifiesanessentialdifferencebetweenthetrainee(sekha)andthe
arahant.Whilethesekhahaseliminatedidentityviewandthusnolonger
identifiesanyofthefiveaggregatesasaself,hehasnotyeteradicated
ignorance,whichsustainsaresidualconceitanddesire“Iam”(anusahagato
asmītimānoasmītichando)inrelationtothefiveaggregates.Thearahant,in
contrast,haseradicatedignorance,therootofallmisconceptions,andthusno
longerentertainsanyideasof“I”and“mine.”Theothereldersapparentlyhad
notyetattainedanystageofawakeningandthusdidnotunderstandthis
difference,buttheVenerableKhemakamusthavebeenatleastastream-enterer
(somecommentatorssayhewasanonreturner)andthusknewthatthe
eliminationofidentityviewdoesnotcompletelyremovethesenseofpersonal
identity.Evenforthenonreturner,an“odorofsubjectivity”basedonthefive
aggregatesstilllingersoverhisexperience.
36Spk:Theworldling’smentalprocessislikethesoiledcloth.Thethree
contemplations(ofimpermanence,suffering,andnonself)arelikethethree
cleansers.Thementalprocessofthenonreturnerislikethecloththathasbeen
washedwiththethreecleansers.Thedefilementstobeeradicatedbythepathof
arahantshipareliketheresidualsmellofthecleansers.Theknowledgeofthe
pathofarahantshipislikethesweetlyscentedchest,andthedestructionofall
defilementsbythatpathislikethevanishingoftheresidualsmellofthe
cleansersfromtheclothafterithasbeenplacedinthechest.
37Thatis,outsidetheBuddha’steaching.
38AsIunderstandit,“thatwhichistheirdestination…theirfinalgoal”is
Nibbāna.Wehavehereanotheressentialdifferencebetweenthetraineeandthe
arahant:thetraineeseesNibbāna,thedestinationofthefivefaculties,thatin
whichtheyculminate,theirfruitandfinalgoal;however,hecannot“contactit
withthebody,”cannotenteruponthefullexperienceofit.Incontrast,the
arahantbothseesthefinalgoalandcanfullyexperienceithereandnow.
39Thesearethethirty-sevenbodhipakkhiyādhammā,lit.“statespertainingto
enlightenment,”morefreely:“aidstoenlightenment.”Onthefour
establishmentsofmindfulness,seeTextVII,2andTextVIII,8fordetailsand
SNchapter47.Thefourrightkindsofstrivingareequivalenttorighteffort,for
whichseeTextVII,2andSNchapter49.Thefourbasesforspiritualpowerare:
concentrationdueto(1)desire,or(2)energy,or(3)mind,or(4)investigation,
withvolitionalforcesofstriving;seeSNchapter51.Thefivefacultiesareat
TextX,1(2);seeSNchapter48fordetails.Thefivepowersarethesamefive
factorsasthefaculties,butwithgreaterstrength.Thesevenfactorsof
enlightenmentareatTextVIII,9;seeSNchapter46.TheNobleEightfoldPath
isatTextVII,2;seeSNchapter45.
40Psidentifiesthisastheequanimityofthefourthjhāna.PssaysthatPukkusāti
hadalreadyachievedthefourthjhānaandwasdeeplyattachedtoit.TheBuddha
firstpraisesthisequanimitytoinspirePukkusāti’sconfidence,andthen
graduallyguideshimtotheformlessattainmentsandthesupramundanepaths
andfruits.
41Thesenseis:Ifheattainsthebaseoftheinfinityofspaceandpassesaway
whilestillattachedtoit,hewouldberebornintheplaneoftheinfinityofspace
andwouldlivethereforthefulllifespanof20,000eonsspecifiedforthatplane.
Inthehigherthreeformlessplanesthelifespanissaidtobe,respectively,40,000
eons,60,000eons,and84,000eons.
42Ps:Thisissaidinordertoshowthedangerintheformlessattainments.By
theonephrase,“Thiswouldbeconditioned,”heshows:“Eventhoughthe
lifespanthereis20,000eons,itisconditioned,fashioned,builtup.Itisthus
impermanent,unstable,notlasting,transient.Itissubjecttoperishing,breaking
up,anddissolution;itisinvolvedwithbirth,aging,anddeath,foundedupon
suffering.Itisnotashelter,aplaceofsafety,arefuge.Havingpassedawaythere
asaworldling,onecanstillbereborninthefourstatesofmisery.”
43Son’evaabhisaṅkharotinābhisañcetayatibhavāyavāvibhavāya.Thetwo
verbssuggestthenotionofvolitionasaconstructivepowerthatbuildsupand
sustainsconditionedexistence.Ceasingtowillforeitherexistenceor
nonexistenceshowstheextinctionofcravingforeternalexistenceand
annihilation.
44PssaysthatatthispointPukkusātipenetratedthreepathsandfruits,
becominganonreturner.HerealizedthathisteacherwastheBuddhahimself,
buthecouldnotexpressthisrealizationsincetheBuddhacontinuedwithhis
discourse.
45Thispassageshowsthearahant’sabidingintheNibbānaelementwithresidue
remaining(sa-upādisesanibbānadhātu);seeTextIX,5(5).Thoughhecontinues
toexperiencefeelings,heisfreefromlusttowardpleasantfeeling,fromaversion
towardpainfulfeeling,andfromignoranceregardingneutralfeeling.
46Thatis,hecontinuestoexperiencefeelingonlyaslongasthebodywithits
lifefacultycontinues,butnotbeyondthat.
47ThisreferstohisattainmentoftheNibbāna-elementwithnoresidue
remaining(anupādisesanibbānadhātu)—thecessationofallconditioned
existencewithhisfinalpassingaway.SeeTextIX,5(5).
48Thiscompletestheexpositionofthefirstfoundation,thefoundationof
wisdom(paññādhiṭṭhāna).Pssaysthattheknowledgeofthedestructionofall
sufferingisthewisdompertainingtothefruitofarahantship.
49Psmentionsfourkindsofacquisitions(upadhi)here:thefiveaggregates;
defilements;volitionalformations;andsensualpleasures.
50The“tidesofconceiving”(maññussavā),asthefollowingparagraphwill
show,arethoughtsandnotionsoriginatingfromthethreerootsofconceiving—
craving,conceit,andviews.The“sageatpeace”(munisanto)isthearahant.
51Thethoughts“Ishallbe”and“Ishallnotbe”implytheviewsofeternalism
(continuedexistenceafterdeath)andannihilationism(personalextinctionat
death).Thealternativesofhavingphysicalformandbeingformlessrepresent
twomodesofexistenceintheafterlife,physicalanddisembodied;thetriadof
beingpercipient,etc.,arethreeothermodesofexistenceintheafterlife,
distinguishedbytheirrelationshiptoperceptionorawareness.
52Thatwhichisnotpresentinhimiscravingforexistence,whichleadstoa
newbirthfollowingdeath.
53Sattasaddhammā.Faith,moralshame,fearofwrongdoing,learning,energy,
mindfulness,andwisdom.See,e.g.,MN53.11–17.
54Thetraininginthehighermoraldiscipline,thehighermind,andthehigher
wisdom.
55ThetenfactorsaretheeightfactorsoftheNobleEightfoldPath
supplementedbyrightknowledgeandrightliberation.See,e.g.,MN65.34and
MN78.14.
56Thethreefolddiscrimination:“Iambetter,”“Iamequal,”“Iamworse.”
57Itislikelythatbhikkhupaññāvimuttohereshouldbeunderstoodasany
arahantdisciple,notspecificallyasthepaññāvimuttacontrastedwiththe
ubhatobhāgavimuttaarahant.
58ThissuttaisincludedintheMahāparinibbānaSutta(atDNII81–83),but
withoutthelastparagraph.AmuchmoreelaborateversionmakesupDN28.
59Spkidentifies“ofsuchqualities”(evaṃdhammā)as“qualitiespertainingto
concentration”(samādhipakkhādhammā).
60ThetenTathāgata’spowersarepowersofknowledge.Theyareanalyzedin
detailatVibh§§808–31.The“wheelofBrahmā”isthewheeloftheDhamma.
61Fordetails,seeMN115.12–19.
62Psexplainspossibility(ṭhāna)astherealm,circumstances,time,andeffort,
factorsthatcaneitherimpedeorreinforcetheresult.Thecause(hetu)isthe
kammaitself.ThisknowledgeoftheBuddhaisillustratedbyTextsV,1(1)–(3).
63ThissignifiestheBuddha’sknowledgeofthetypesofconductthatleadtoall
futuredestinieswithintheroundofexistenceaswellastofinalliberation.See
MN12.35–42.
64Vibh§813explainsthatheunderstandsthatbeingsareofinferiorand
superiorinclinations,andthatbeingsnaturallyassociatewiththoseofsimilar
inclinations.
65Vibh§§814–27givesadetailedanalysis.Psstatesmoreconciselythathe
knowsthesuperiorandinferiordispositionofthefivefacultiesofotherbeings.
66Vibh§828:Thedefilement(saṅkilesa)isafactorcausingdecline;cleansing
(vodāna)isafactorcausingexcellence;emergence(vuṭṭhāna)isbothcleansing
andrisingfromanattainment.Theeightemancipations(vimokkha)areatDN
15.35,DN16.3.33,MN77.22,MN137.26,etc.;thenineattainments
(samāpatti)arethefourjhānas,fourformlessattainments,andthecessationof
perceptionandfeeling.
67Vesārajja.Pssaysthisisanameforthejoyfulknowledgethatarisesinhim
whenhereflectsuponhisabsenceoftimidityinfourcases.
68Spksaysthisqualificationismadetoexcludethedevaswhoarenobleones.
69Spk:Includedwithinidentity(sakkāyapariyāpannā):includedinthefive
aggregates.WhentheBuddhateachesthemtheDhammastampedwiththethree
characteristics,exposingthefaultsintheroundofexistence,thefearof
knowledgeentersintothem.
TABLEOFSOURCES
*:excerptfromalongersutta
†:severalsuttascombined
DīghaNikāya
MajjhimaNikāya
SUTTA
PTSVOL.&
PAGE
TEXT TEXTTITLE PAGE
9 I46–55 IX,3 adiscourseonrightview 323–
35
10 I55–63 VIII,8 thefourestablishmentsof
mindfulness
281–
90
12* I70–72 X,5(4) thepowersandgroundsof
self-confidence
417–
19
13 I84–90 VI,3 properlyappraisingobjects 193–
ofattachment 99
19* I117–18 X,5(6) themandesiringourgood 420
20 I118–22 VIII,5 theremovalofdistracting
thoughts
275–
78
21* I126–27,129 VIII,6 themindofloving-kindness 278–
79
22* I139–40 X,4(3) amonkwhosecrossbarhas
beenlifted
407–8
22* I140–42 X,1(3) intheDhammawell
expounded
386
26* I160–67 II,3(1) seekingthesupremestateof
sublimepeace
54–59
26* I167–73 II,4 thedecisiontoteach 69–75
27 I175–84 VII,4 thegraduatedtraining 241–
50
29 I192–97 VII,1(2) theheartwoodofthespiritual
life
233–
37
36* I240–49 II,3(2) therealizationofthethree
trueknowledges
59–67
39* I274–80 VII,5 thehigherstagesoftraining
withsimiles
250–
53
41 I286–90 V,1(2) whybeingsfareastheydo
afterdeath
156–
61
47 I317–20 III,4 investigatetheteacher
himself
93–96
54* I364–66 VI,4(1) cuttingoffallaffairs 199–
202
63 I426–32 VII,1(1) thearrowofbirth,aging,and
death
230–
33
64* I434–37 X,3(1) abandoningthefivelower
fetters
396–
98
70* I477–79 X,1(5) sevenkindsofnoblepersons 390–
92
72* I486–88 IX,5(6) thefireandtheocean 367–
69
73* I490–93 X,1(4) thecompletenessofthe
teaching
386–
90
75* I504–8 VI,4(2) thefeverofsensualpleasures 202–5
82* II65–82 VI,6 foursummariesofthe
Dhamma
207–
13
93 II147–54 IV,6(3) purificationisforallfour
castes
132–
37
95* II168–77 III,5 stepstowardtherealization
oftruth
96–
103
99* II206–8 V,5(2) thefourdivineabodes 177–
78
104* II245–47 IV,6(1) sixrootsofdispute 130–
31
104* II250–51 IV,6(2) sixprinciplesofcordiality 131–
32
109 III15–19 IX,4(1)
(b)
acatechismontheaggregates 338–
41
123 III118–20;
122–24
II,2 theBuddha’sconceptionand
birth
50–54
135 III202–6 V,1(3) kammaanditsfruits 161–
66
140* III240–43 IX,4(3)
(c)
thesixelements 350–
53
140* III244–47 X,4(7) thesageatpeace 410–
12
146* III274–75 IX,1(2) wisdomasaknife 321
SaṃyuttaNikāya
SUTTA
PTSVOL.
&PAGE
TEXT TEXTTITLE PAGE
3:3 I71<163–
64>
I,1(1) aginganddeath 26
3:25 I100–102
<224–29>
I,1(2) thesimileofthemountain 26–28
12:1 II1–2 IX,4(4)
(a)
whatisdependentorigination? 353
12:15 II16–17 IX,4(4)
(d)
ateachingbythemiddle 356–
57
12:20 II25–27 IX,4(4)
(b)
thestablenessoftheDhamma 353–
55
12:33 II56–59 IX,4(4)
(c)
forty-fourcasesofknowledge 355–
56
12:38 II65–66 IX,4(4)
(e)
thecontinuanceof
consciousness
357–
58
12:44 II73–74 IX,4(4)
(f)
theoriginandpassingofthe
world
358–
59
12:65 II104–7 II,3(3) theancientcity 67–69
13:1 II133–34 X,2(3) thebreakthroughtothe
Dhamma
394
14:1 II140 IX,4(3)
(a)
theeighteenelements 349
14:37–
39†
II175–77 IX,4(3)
(b)
thefourelements 349–
50
15:1 II178 I,4(1) grassandsticks 37
15:2 II179 I,4(2) ballsofclay 37–38
15:3 II179–80 VI,9(1) thestreamoftears 218–
19
15:5 II181–82 I,4(3) themountain 38
15:8 II183–84 I,4(4) theriverGanges 38–39
15:13 II187–89 VI,9(2) thestreamofblood 219–
20
22:7 III15–18 I,2(3) anxietyduetochange 33–35
22:45 III44–45 IX,4(1)
(d)
impermanent,suffering,
nonself
342–
43
22:56 III58–61 IX,4(1)
(a)
phasesoftheaggregates 335–
37
22:58 III65–66 X,5(1) theBuddhaandthearahant 413–
14
22:59 III66–68 IX,4(1)
(c)
thecharacteristicofnonself 341–
42
22:76* III83–84 X,4(8) happyindeedarethearahants 412–
13
22:78 III84–85 X,5(7) thelion 420–
21
22:82 III100–103 IX,4(1)
(b)
acatechismontheaggregates 338–
41
22:89 III126–32 X,4(1) removingtheresidualconceit
“Iam”
402–6
22:95 III140–42 IX,4(1)
(e)
alumpoffoam 343–
45
22:99 II149–50 I,4(5) dogonaleash 39–40
25:1 III225 X,2(2) enteringthefixedcourseof
rightness
393
28:1–9† III235–38 VIII,10 theachievementofmastery 296–
98
35:26 V17–18 IX,4(2)
(a)
fullunderstanding 345
35:28 IV19–20 IX,4(2)
(b)
burning 346
35:85 IV54 IX,4(2)
(d)
emptyistheworld 347
35:147–
49†
IV133–35 IX,4(2)
(c)
suitableforattainingNibbāna 346–
47
35:234 IV166–68 IX,4(2)
(e)
consciousnesstooisnonself 348–
49
36:6 IV207–10 I,2(1) thedartofpainfulfeeling 31–32
38:1 IV251–52 IX,5(1) whatisNibbāna? 364
42:11 IV327–30 III,3 thevisibleoriginandthe
passingawayofsuffering
91–93
43:1–
44†
IV359–73 IX,5(2) thirty-threesynonymsfor
Nibbāna
364–
65
45:2 V2–3 VII,3 goodfriendship 240–
41
45:8 V8–10 VII,2 analysisoftheeightfoldpath 239–
40
45:41–
48†
V27–29 VII,1(3) thefadingawayoflust 238
46:3 V69–70 X,3(4) fivekindsofnonreturners 401–2
46:55 V121–26 VIII,3 thehindrancestomental
development
270–
72
47:12 V159–61 X,5(3) Sāriputta’sloftyutterance 415–
17
48:18 V202 X,1(2) differentiationbyfaculties 385
48:53 V229–30 X,4(2) thetraineeandthearahant 406–7
54:13 V328–33 VIII,9 mindfulnessofbreathing 290–
95
55:1 V342 X,2(5) betterthansovereigntyover
theearth
395
55:2 V343–44 X,2(4) thefourfactorsofastream-
enterer
394–
95
55:3 V344–46 X,3(3) sixthingsthatpartakeoftrue
knowledge
400–1
55:5 V410–11 X,2(1) thefourfactorsleadingto
stream-entry
392–
93
56:11 V420–24 II,5 thefirstdiscourse 75–78
56:20 V430–31 IX,4(5)
(b)
thesefourtruthsareactual 359–
60
56:21 V431–32 IX,4(5)
(d)
becauseofnotunderstanding 361
56:24 V433–34 IX,4(5)
(a)
thetruthsofallBuddhas 359
56:25 V434 IX,4(5)
(g)
thedestructionofthetaints 363–
64
56:31 V437–38 IX,4(5)
(c)
ahandfulofleaves 360
56:32 V442–43 IX,4(5)
(f)
makingthebreakthrough 362–
63
56:38 V442–43 X,5(5) themanifestationofgreatlight 419
56:42 V448–50 IX,4(5)
(e)
theprecipice 361–
62
AṅguttaraNikāya
SUTTA
PTSVOL.&
TEXT TEXTTITLE PAGE
PAGE
1:iii,1,
2,3,4,9,
10†
I5–6 VIII,1 themindisthekey 267
1:xiii,
1,5,6†
I22–23 II,1 oneperson 50
1:xvii,1,3,
7,9†
I30–32 VI,7(1) amiscellanyon
wrongview
213–
14
2:iii,10 I61 VIII,2(1) serenityandinsight 267–
68
2:iv,2 I61–62 IV,2(1)
(b)
repayingone’s
parents
119
2:iv,6* I66 I,3(1) theoriginofconflict 35
3:14 I109–10 V,1(1) thekingofthe
Dhamma
115–
16
3:35* I138–40 I,1(3) thedivine
messengers
29–30
3:65 I188–93 II,2 nodogmasorblind
belief
88–91
3:69* I201–2 I,3(4) therootsofviolence
andoppression
36–37
3:100 I253–56 VIII,4 therefinementofthe
mind§§1–10
273–
75
3:101 I259 VI,2(2) Isetoutseeking§3 192–
93
3:101 I258–59 VI,2(1) beforemy
enlightenment§§1–
192
2
3:102 I260 VI,2(3) iftherewereno
gratification
193
3:129 I282–83 III,1 notasecretdoctrine 88
4:23 II23–24 X,5(8) whyishecalledthe
Tathāgata?
421–
23
4:34 II34–35 V,2(3) thebestkindsof
confidence
168–
69
4:53 II57–59 IV,2(2)
(a)
differentkindsof
marriages
119–
20
4:55 II61–62 IV,2(2)
(b)
howtobeunitedin
futurelives
121–
22
4:57 II62–63 V,3(3) thegiftoffood 170
4:61 II65–68 IV,4(2) theproperuseof
wealth
126–
27
4:62 II69–70 IV,4(3) familyman’s
happiness
127–
28
4:63 II70 IV,2(1)
(a)
respectforparents 118–
19
4:94 II93–95 VIII,2(3) fourkindsof
persons
269–
70
4:125 II128–29 VI,8 fromthedivine
realmstothe
infernal
216–
18
4:128 II131–324:143
II139IX,1(1)
VI,1 fourwonderful
thingswisdomasa
191–
92321
light
4:169 II155–56 X,3(2) fourkindsof
persons
398–
400
4:170 II156–57 VIII,2(2) fourwaysto
arahantship
268–
69
4:232 II230–32 V,1(1) fourkindsofkamma 155–
56
5:148 III172–73 V,3(4) asuperiorperson’s
gifts
170–
71
5:177 III208 IV,4(1) avoidingwrong
livelihood
126
6:10 III284–88 VIII,7 thesixrecollections 279–
81
7:59 IV91–94 IV,2(2)
(c)
sevenkindsofwives 122–
24
7:70 IV136–39 VI,5 lifeisshortand
fleeting
206–7
8:2 IV151–55 IX,2 theconditionsfor
wisdom
322–
23
8:6 IV157–59 I,2(2) thevicissitudesof
life
32
8:33 IV236–37 V,3(2) reasonsforgiving 169
8:35 IV239–41 V,3(6) rebirthonaccountof
giving
171–
72
8:36 IV241–43 V,2(2) threebasesofmerit 167
8:39 IV245–47 V,4(1) thefiveprecepts 172–
74
8:41 IV248–51 V,4(2) theuposatha
observance
174–
76
8:49 V269–71 IV,5 thewomanofthe
home
128–
30
8:54 IV281–85 IV,3 presentwelfare,
futurewelfare
124–
26
8:59 IV292 X,1(1) eightpersonsworthy
ofgifts
385
9:7* IV370–71 X,4(4) ninethingsan
arahantcannotdo
408
9:20 IV393–969:26*
IV404–5X,4(5)
V,5(3) insightsurpassesall
amindunshaken
178–
79
408–9
10:90 V174–75 X,4(6) thetenpowersofan
arahantmonk
409
Udāna
Itivuttaka
GLOSSARY
Arahant.A“worthyone”;onewhohaseliminatedalldefilementsandattained
fullliberationinthisverylife.
Bodhisatta. A future Buddha, one destined to attain unsurpassed perfect
enlightenment;specifically,itisthetermtheBuddhausestorefertohimselfin
theperiodpriortohisenlightenment,bothinpastlivesandinhislastlifebefore
heattainedenlightenment.
Brahmā. According to the brahmins, the supreme personal deity, but in the
Buddha’s teaching, a powerful deity who rules over a high divine state of
existencecalledthebrahmaworld;moregenerally,theworddenotestheclassof
superiordevasinhabitingtheformrealm.
Deva.Adeityorgod;thebeingsinhabitingtheheavenlyworlds,usuallyinthe
sense-sphererealmbutmorebroadlyinallthreerealms.
Dhamma. The cosmic principle of truth, lawfulness, and virtue discovered,
fathomed,andtaughtbytheBuddha;theBuddha’steachingasanexpressionof
thatprinciple;theteachingthatleadstoenlightenmentandliberation.
Jambudīpa.Lit.,“rose-appleisland,”theIndiansubcontinent.
Jhāna. States of deep meditative concentration marked by the one-pointed
fixationoftheminduponitsobject;thesuttasdistinguishfourstagesofjhāna.
Kamma. Volitional action, considered particularly as a moral force capable of
producing, for the agent, results that correspond to the ethical quality of the
action; thus good kamma produces happiness, and bad kamma produces
suffering.
Kappa.Aneonorcosmiccycle,theperiodoftimeittakesforaworldsystemto
arise,evolve,dissolve,andpersistinastateofdisintegrationbeforeanewcycle
begins.
Māra. “The Evil One” or “Tempter”; a malevolent deity who tries to prevent
peoplefrompracticingtheDhammaandtherebyescapingtheroundofrebirths.
Nibbāna. The final goal of the Buddha’s teaching; the unconditioned state
beyondtheroundofrebirths,tobeattainedbythedestructionofthedefilements.
Pātimokkha.ThecodeofmonasticrulesbindingonmembersoftheBuddhist
monasticorder.
Saṃsāra. Lit., the “wandering,” the round of rebirths without discoverable
beginning,sustainedbyignoranceandcraving.
Saṅgha.Thespiritual community,which is twofold: (1) the monastic Saṅgha,
theorderofmonksandnuns;and(2)thenobleSaṅgha,thespiritualcommunity
of noble disciples who have reached the stages of world-transcending
realization.
Tathāgata. Meaning “Thus Come One” or “Thus Gone One,” the epithet the
Buddhausesmostoftentorefertohimself;occasionallyitisusedasageneral
designationforapersonwhohasreachedthehighestattainment.
Uposatha.TheBuddhistobservancedays,fallingonthedaysofthefullmoon
andnewmoon,whenthemonksgathertorecitethePātimokkhaandlaypeople
oftenvisitmonasteriesandtemplestoundertaketheeightprecepts.
Yojana.AnancientIndianmeasurementofdistance,approximatelysixmiles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARYSOURCES
Bodhi,Bhikkhu,trans.TheConnectedDiscoursesoftheBuddha:ATranslation
oftheSaṃyuttaNikāya.Boston:WisdomPublications,2000.
Ireland,JohnD.,trans.TheUdānaandTheItivuttaka:InspiredUtterancesofthe
Buddha and The Buddha’s Sayings. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication
Society,1997.
Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu, trans.The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A
TranslationoftheMajjhimaNikāya.EditedandrevisedbyBhikkhuBodhi.2nd
ed.Boston:WisdomPublications,2001.
NyanaponikaTheraandBhikkhuBodhi,trans.anded.NumericalDiscoursesof
theBuddha:AnAnthologyofSuttasfromtheAṅguttaraNikāya.WalnutCreek,
Calif.:AltaMiraPress,1999.
Walshe,Maurice,trans.TheLongDiscourses of the Buddha: ATranslationof
the Dīgha Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications, 1995. (Originally published
underthetitle,ThusHaveIHeard,1987.)
OTHERWORKSREFERREDTO:
Adikaram,E.W.EarlyHistoryofBuddhisminCeylon.1946.Reprint.Dehiwala,
SriLanka:BuddhistCulturalCentre,1994.
Analāyo.Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization. Birmingham, UK:
Windhorse,2003.
ChoongMun-keat(Wei-keat).TheFundamentalTeachingsofEarlyBuddhism:
A Comparative Study based on the Sūtrāṅga Portion of the Pāli Saṃyutta-
NikāyaandtheChineseSaṃyuktāgama.Wiesbaden:HarrassowitzVerlag,2000.
Gethin,Rupert.TheFoundationsofBuddhism.OxfordandNewYork:Oxford
UniversityPress,1998.
Jayatilleke,K.N.EarlyBuddhistTheoryofKnowledge.London:GeorgeAllen&
Unwin,1963.
Malalasekera, G.P. The Pāli Literature of Ceylon. 1928. Reprint. Kandy, Sri
Lanka:BuddhistPublicationSociety,1994.
Manné,Joy.“CategoriesofSuttainthePāliNikāyasandTheirImplicationsfor
OurAppreciationoftheBuddhistTeachingandLiterature.”JournalofthePali
TextSociety,XV:29–87.
Minh Chau, Bhikṣu Thich.The Chinese Madhyama Āgama and the Pāli
MajjhimaNikāya.Delhi:MotilalBanarsidass,1991.
Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu.Life of the Buddha according to the Pāli Canon. 3rd ed.
Kandy,SriLanka:BuddhistPublicationSociety,1992.
Ñāṇamoli,Bhikkhu.MindfulnessofBreathing(Ānāpānasati).Kandy,SriLanka:
BuddhistPublicationSociety,1964.
Ñāṇamoli,Bhikkhu,trans.ThePathofPurification(Visuddhimagga).Colombo,
SriLanka:M.D.Gunasena,1964.
Ñāṇananda, Bhikkhu.Concept and Realityin Early Buddhist Thought. Kandy,
SriLanka:BuddhistPublicationSociety,1972.
Norman,K.R.PāliLiterature.Wiesbaden:HarrassowitzVerlag,1983.
Nyanaponika Thera and Hellmuth Hecker. Great Disciples of the Buddha.
Boston:WisdomPublications,1997.
NyanaponikaThera.TheHeartofBuddhistMeditation.London:Rider,1962.
NyanaponikaThera.TheVisionofDhamma.2nded.Kandy,SriLanka:Buddhist
PublicationSociety,1994.
Soma Thera. The Way of Mindfulness. The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta and Its
Commentary . 1941. 4th ed. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society,
1975.
PālieditionsoftheNikāyas,aswellastranslations,textbooksforthestudyof
Pāli,Pāligrammars,andPāli-EnglishdictionariescanbeobtainedfromthePali
TextSociety(PTS).Foracatalog,writeto73LimeWalk,Headington,Oxford
OX3 7AD, UK, or e-mail: pts@palitext.com Website: www.palitext.com. In
North America PTS books are available from Pariyatti, 867 Larmon Road,
Onalaska, WA 98570. Telephone: (360) 978-4998. Fax: (360) 978-4557.
Website:www.pariyatti.com.
AnimportantAsiansourceforEnglishtranslationsfromtheNikāyas,aswell
asotherworksrelatingtoEarlyBuddhism,istheBuddhistPublicationSociety
(BPS)inSriLanka.Foracatalog,writetoP.O.Box61,54SangharajaMawatha,
Kandy,SriLanka,ore-mail:bps@sltnet.lk.
ValuableonlineresourcesforthestudyoftheNikāyas,includingalternative
translations of many suttas included in this anthology, can be found on the
website “Access to Insight”: www.accesstoinsight.org. An introductory essay
offered by this website, “Befriending the Suttas” by John Bullitt, provides
helpfulinformationonhowtoreadthesuttastobestadvantage.
INDEXOFSUBJECTS
Pagereferencesinitalicsaretooccurrencesoftheindexedterminoneofthe
introductions.
Acquisitions(upadhi)
Action,right(sammākammanta)
Āgamas
Aggregates,five
(pañc’upādānakkhandhā)analyzed,
clinging,andcontemplationofimpermanent,suffering,
nonself,asviewedasself:
void,as
Aging-and-death(jarāmaraṇa).SeealsoDeath;OldAge
Agitation(paritassanā)
Aidstoenlightenment(bodhipakkhiyādhammā)
Airelement(vayodhātu).SeealsoElements(four)
All(sabba)
Altruisticjoy(muditā)
Analyticalknowledges(paṭisambhidā)
Anger(kodha)
Annihilationism(ucchedavāda)
Arahant(s) equanimity of for the welfare of many happiness of metaphors for
moraldisciplineofsageatpeace,astenpowersoftrainee,and
Arrogance(atimāna)
Asceticsandbrahmins(samaṇabrāhmaṇā)
Asuras
Attainedtoview(diṭṭhippatta)
Balancedliving(samajīvitā)
Birth(jāti)
Bodhisatta
Body,contemplationof(kāyānupassanā)
Body-witness(kāyasakkhī)
Brahmaworld(brahmaloka)
Brahmins
Buddha: arahants, and ascetic practices conception and birth of confidence in
decision to teach first discourse good friend, as good report of quest for
enlightenmentrecollectionof.SeealsoTathāgata
Carefulattention(yonisomanasikāra)
Castesystem
Celibacy(brahmacariyā)
Cessation: perception and feeling, of (saññāvedayitanirodha) suffering, of
world,of
Clearcomprehension(sampajañña)
Clinging(upādāna)
Compassion:(1)(anukampā);(2)(karuṇā,kāruñña)
Conceit(māna)
Conceivings(maññita)
Concentration(samādhi);rightconcentration(sammāsamādhi)
Conduct: righteous (samacariyā); unrighteous (visamacariyā). See also Moral
discipline
Confidence(pasāda)
Conflict.SeealsoDisputes
Consciousness(viññāṇa)
Contact(phassa)
Contentment(santuṭṭhi)
Cordiality,sixprinciplesof(chasārāṇīyādhammā)
Corpsemeditations
Covetousness(abhijjhā)
Craving(taṇhā)
Death(maraṇa).SeealsoAging-and-death
Dependentorigination(paṭiccasamuppāda)
Desire(chanda)
Destructionoflife(pāṇātipāta)
Devas
Dhamma breakthrough to (dhammābhisamaya) desire for (dhammarāga)
recollection of taught by middle vision of (dhammacakkhu) wheel of
(dhammacakka)
Dhamma-follower(dhammānusārī)
Directknowledge(abhiññā)
Disputes(vivāda)
Divineabodes(brahmavihāra)
Divineear(dibbasota)
Divineeye(dibbacakkhu).SeePassingawayandrebirthofbeings,knowledgeof
Divinemessengers(devadūta)
Doubt(vicikicchā).SeealsoFetters;Hindrances,five
Dullnessanddrowsiness(thinamiddha).SeealsoHindrances,five
Earthelement(pathavīdhātu).SeealsoElements(four)
Effort,right(sammāvāyāma)
Elements(dhātu);eighteen,six
Enlightenment (sambodha, sambodhi); factors of, seven (satta bojjhaṅga)
unsurpassedperfect(anuttarāsammāsambodhi)
Envy(issā)
Eon(kappa)
Equanimity(upekkhā)
Escape(nissaraṇa).SeealsoGratification,danger,escape
Eternalism(sassatavāda)
Existence:(1)(atthitā)(2)(bhava)
Faculties:restraintofsense(indriyasaṃvara);spiritual
Faith(saddhā)
Faith-follower(saddhānusārī)
Falsespeech(musāvāda),
Falsespeech(musavada)
Family
Fear(bhaya)
Feeling (vedanā); aggregate of (vedanākkhandha) contemplation of
(vedanānupassanā)
Fetters(saṃyojana)
Fireelement(tejodhātu).SeealsoElements(four)
Fixedcourseofrightness(sammattaniyāma)
Form (rūpa): aggregate of (rūpakkhandha) realm (rūpadhātu)See also Name-
and-form
Formations(saṅkhārā).SeealsoVolitionalformations
Formlessstates(āruppa);formlessrealm(arūpadhātu)
Foundations,four(adhiṭṭhāna)
FourNobleTruths(cattāriariyasaccāni)
Friendship,good(kalyāṇamittatā)
Fullunderstanding(pariññā)
Generosity(cāga)
Giving(dāna)
Goingforth(pabbajjā)
Gradualtraining(anupubbasikkhā)
Gratification,danger,escape(assāda,ādīnava,nissaraṇa)
Greed,hatred,delusion(lobha,dosa,moha)
Happiness(sukha).SeealsoWelfareandhappiness
Harshspeech(pharusāvācā)
Heaven(sagga).SeealsoDevas
Hell(niraya)
Hindrances,five(nīvaraṇa)
Humanbeings(manussa)
Husbandsandwives
“Iam”(asmi)
Identityview(sakkāyadiṭṭhi)
Idlechatter(samphappalāpa)
Ignorance(avijjā)
Illness
Illwill(byāpāda)
“I”-making(ahaṃkāra)
Impermanence(anicca)
Infiniteconsciousness,baseof(viññāṇañcāyatana)
Infinitespace,baseof(ākāsāṇañcāyatana)
Insight(vipassanā)
Intention,right(sammāsaṅkappa)
JhānafootprintsofTathāgata,asrightconcentration,assimilesforwithout“I”
and“mine,”
Kamma
Killing.SeeDestructionoflife
Knowledge:principle andentailment, of(dhamme ñāṇa, anvaye ñāṇa) vision,
and(ñāṇadassana)
Laborrelations
Liberated: by faith (saddhāvimutta); by wisdom (paññāvimutta) in both ways
(ubhatobhāgavimutta),
Liberation(vimutti)
Lifespan(āyuppamāṇa)
Livelihood,right(sammāājīva)
Loving-kindness(mettā)
Lust(rāga);fadingawayoflust,hatred,delusion(rāga,dosa,moha)(Seealso
Greed, hatred, delusion); senalso Greed, hatred, delusion); sensual lust
(kāmarāga)
Maliciousspeech(pisuṇāvācā)
Marriage.SeeHusbandsandwives
Meditation(bhāvanā)
Merit(puñña)
Middleway(majjhimāpaṭipadā)
Mind(citta);contemplationof(cittānupassanā)higher(adhicitta)mind-reading
Mindfulness (sati): body, of (kāyagatā sati); breathing, of (ānāpānasati) four
establishmentsof(cattārosatipaṭṭhānā)rightmindfulness(sammāsati)
Moraldiscipline(sīla)
Name-and-form(nāmarūpa)
Neither-perception-nor-nonperception(n’evasaññānāsaññāyatana),baseof
NibbānaattainedinfourwaysattainedinsevenwaystwoelementsofNikāyas
Nikayas
Nobledisciple(ariyasāvaka)
NobleEightfoldPath(ariyaaṭṭhaṅgikamagga);analysisofgoodfriendship,and
stream-entry,and
Nobleperson(ariyapuggala):eighttypes:seventypes:
Nonreturner(anāgāmī)
Nonself(anattā)
Nothingness,baseof(ākiñcaññāyatana)
Nutriment(āhāra)
Oldage(jarā).SeealsoAging-and-death
Once-returner(sakadāgāmī)
Origin(samudaya):suffering,ofworld,of
Paccekabuddha
Painfulfeeling(dukkhāvedanā).SeealsoFeeling
PāliCanon
Parentsandchildren
Passingawayandrebirthofbeings,knowledgeof(sattānaṃcutūpapattiñāṇa)
Pastlives,knowledgeof(pubbenivāsānussatiñāṇa)
Pathandfruition(magga-phala)
Pātimokkha
Peace(upasama)
Perception(saññā)
Phenomena,contemplationof(dhammānupassanā)
Piṭakas
Politicalteachings
Postures(iriyāpatha)
Precepts(sīla,sikkhāpada):eight:five:monastic:
Pupilsandteachers
Pureabodes(suddhāvāsa)
Rebirth(upapatti)
Recollections,six(chaanussati)
Refuge,goingfor(saraṇagamana)
Relinquishment(cāga)
Restlessnessandremorse(uddhaccakukkucca).SeealsoHindrances,five
Saṃsāra
Saṅgha
Secretdoctrines
Self,viewof.SeealsoIdentityview
Sensebases,six(saḷlāyatana)
Sense-sphererealm(kāmadhātu)
Sensualpleasures(kāma)
Serenity(samatha)
Sexualmisconduct(kāmesumicchācāra)
Socialteachings
Spaceelement(ākāsadhātu)
Speech,right(sammāvācā)
Spirituallife(brahmacariya)
Spiritualpower(iddhi)
Stream-enterer(sotāpanna)
Stream-entry(sotāpatti)
Suffering(dukkha)characteristic,asdanger,asnobletruthof
Supramundane.SeealsoWorld-transcendingteaching/path
Taints(āsava)destructionof,knowledgeof(āsavakkhayañāṇa)
Takingwhatisnotgiven(adinnādāna)
Tathāgata existence after death? footprints ofgrounds of self-confidence,
four,powersof,ten
Theravāda
Thoughts(vitakka)
Trainee(sekha)
Trueknowledge(vijjā)
Truth(sacca):foundationof(saccādhiṭṭhāna)inspeech
Unattractivenessofbody(asubha)
Underlyingtendencies(anusaya)
Unsurpassedthings,six(chaanut-
tariȳ)
Unwholesome(akusala)
Uposatha
Vedas
View,false(diṭṭhi):SeealsoIdentityview
View,right(sammādiṭṭhi)
Violence
Volition(cetanā)
Volitionalformations(saṅkhārā)
Waterelement(āpodhātu).SeealsoElements(four)
Wealth
Welfareandhappiness(hitasukha)
Wheel-turningmonarch(rājācakkavattī)
Wholesome(kusala)
Wisdom(paññā)
Womanofhome
World (loka): empty, as eternal, infinite, etc., whethergratification, danger,
escapeoriginandcessationofunderstoodbyTathāgata
Worldling(puthujjana)
Worldlyconditions,eight(aṭṭhalokadhammā)
World-transcending(lokuttara)teaching/path
INDEXOFPROPERNAMES
AjātasattuVedehiputta,King
ĀḷāraKālāma
Ānanda,Venerable
Anāthapiṇḍika,householder
Araka,religiousteacher
Ārāmadaṇḍa,brahmin
Assalāyana,brahminstudent
Bārāṇasī
Bhadraka,headman
Brahmā
BrahmāSahampati
Caṇkī,brahmin
Daḷhanemi,King
Dāsaka,Venerable
Devadatta
Dīghajānu(Byagghapajja)
Dīghāvu,layfollower
Ganges,river
Isipatana
Jambudīpa
Jambukhādaka,wanderer
Jāṇusoṇi,brahmin
Jetavana
Jotika,householder
Kaccānagotta,Venerable
Kālāmas
Kamboja
Kāpaṭhika(Bhāradvāja),brahminstudent
Kesaputta
Khemaka,Venerable
Koṇḍañña,Venerable
Koravya,King
Kūṭadanta,brahmin
Māgandiya,wanderer
Mahākaccāna,Venerable
MahānāmatheSakyan
Mahāvijita,King
Māluṇkyaputta,Venerable
Māra
Nakulamātā,housewife
Nakulapitā,householder
Naḷakāra
NandanaGrove
Pasenadi,King
Pāvā
Pilotika(Vacchāyana)
Potaliya,householder
Pukkusāti,Venerable
Rājagaha
Raṭṭhapāla,Venerable
Saccaka(Aggivessana)
Sakka,rulerofdevas
Sālā,brahminvillage
Saṅgārava,brahmin
SārandadaShrine
Sāriputta,Venerable
Sāvatthī
Senānigama
Sigālaka,householdersson
Subha,brahminstudent
Sujāta,daughter-in-law
Suppavāsā,Koliyanlady
Tāvatiṃsadevas/heaven
Thullakoṭṭhita
Tusita,devas/heaven
Udāyī,Venerable
UddakaRāmaputta
Upaka,Ājīvaka
Uruvelā
Uruvelakappa
Vacchagotta,wanderer
Vajjians
Vassakāra,brahmin
Velāma,brahmin
Vesālī
Visākhā,Migāra’smother
Yama
Yāmadevas/heaven
Yona
INDEXOFSIMILES
Ancientcity
Bagfullofdifferentgrains
Ballofbathpowder
Ballsofclay
Banana-treetrunk
Basketmadeoflotusleaves
Basketmadeofpineneedles
Bitofsoilinthefingernail
Bitterseedsyieldbitterfruits
Blazinggrasstorch
Blindmenandtheelephant
Blindmenwalkinginfile
Bolt
Bowlsofwater
Burden
Businesssucceeds,manwhose
Changingposturesfromcoarsetosubtle
Charcoalpit
Cleaningasoiledcloth
Cowcutupintopieces
Cowledtoslaughter
Crossbar
Dart,manstruckby
Desert,manwhocrosses
Dewdroponabladeofgrass
Divinemessengers
Dogonaleash
Dreamoflovelyparks
Elephant’sfootprints
Extinguishedfire
Extractingacoarsepegwithafinepeg
Fire-sticks
Goodsborrowedonloan
GrassandsticksinJambudīpa
Handfulofleaves
Heartwoodfromatree
Herdofdeer
Horroratthecarcassofasnake
Illness,manwhorecoversfrom
Lakewhosewaterswellupfrombelow
Lathe-workermakingaturn
Lepercuredofleprosy
Leperscratchinghisscabs
Linedrawnonwater
Lion
Lotusesinapond
Lumpoffoam
Lumpofspittle
Magicalillusion
Mirage
Moon’sradiance
Morningstaratdawn
Mountainlake,manlookinginto
Mountainmadeofstone
Mountainstream
Mountainscomingthisway
Oceandeepandimmeasurable
Oil-lampdeprivedoffuel
Pieceofmeatseizedbyahawk
Pieceofmeatthrownonapan
Pillar
Poisonedarrow,manhitby
Prison,manreleasedfrom
Recollectshistravelsamongvillages,aman
Refinementofgold
RiverGangesreachesthesea
SandsoftheriverGanges
Scentofalotus
Seespeoplemovingbetweentwohouses,aman
Shuttingone’seyestoavoidseeingforms
Skeletonofmeatlessbones
Slavery,manreleasedfrom
Stonepillarsunkintheground
Streamofblood
Streamoftears
Strongmanbeatingdownaweakerman
Sunandmoonarisingintheworld
Sundispellingdarknessofspace
SwimmingacrosstheriverGanges
Tankwithfourinletsandoutlets
Threefires
Treeladenwithfruit
Trench
Two-handledsaw
Waterbubble
Waytohisvillage,manwhoknowsthe
Wheel-turningmonarch
Whitecloth,mancoveredby
Wisegatekeeper
YoungdevainNandanaGrove
INDEXOFSELECTEDPĀLISUTTATITLES
*:excerptfromalongersutta
Acchariya-abbhutaSutta(MN123)
ĀdittapariyāyaSutta(SN35:28)
*AggivacchagottaSutta(MN72)
*AlagaddūpamaSutta(MN22)
ĀnandaSutta(SN54:13)
AnattalakkhaṇaSutta(SN22:59)
*AriyapariyesanaSutta(MN26)
AssalāyanaSutta(MN93)
*CakkavattisāhanādaSutta(DN26)
*CaṅkāSutta(MN95)
CūḷahatthipadopamaSutta(MN27)
CūḷakammavibhaṅgaSutta(MN135)
CūḷamāluṅkyaSutta(MN63)
DhātuvibhaṅgaSutta(MN140)
DhammacakkappavattanaSutta(SN56:11)
*DvedhāvitakkaSutta(MN19)
*KakacūpamaSutta(MN21)
*KīṭāgiriSutta(MN70)
*KūṭadantaSutta(DN05)
*MāgandiyaSutta(MN75)
MaggavibhaṅgaSutta(SN45:08)
*Mahā-assapuraSutta(MN39)
MahādukkhakkhandhaSutta(MN13)
*MahāmāluṅkyaSutta(MN64)
*MahānidānaSutta(DN15)
*MahāparinibbānaSutta(DN16)
MahāpuṇṇamaSutta(MN109)
*MahāsaccakaSutta(MN36)
MahāsāropamaSutta(MN29)
*MahāsāhanādaSutta(MN12)
*MahāvacchagottaSutta(MN73)
*NānātitthiyaSutta(Ud6:4)
*NandakovādaSutta(MN146)
*NibbānaSutta(Ud8:1)
PabbatopamaSutta(SN3:25)
PapātaSutta(SN56:42)
PheṇaSutta(SN22:95)
*PotaliyaSutta(MN54)
RājaSutta(SN55:01)
*RaṭṭhapālaSutta(MN82)
*SakkapañhaSutta(DN21)
SāleyyakaSutta(MN41)
SallaSutta(SN36:06)
*SāmagāmaSutta(MN104)
SammādiṭṭhiSutta(MN9)
SatipaṭṭhānaSutta(MN10)
*Sigālaka(orSigālovāda)Sutta(DN31)
SiṃsapāSutta(SN56:31)
*SubhaSutta(MN99)
SuññaSutta(SN35:85)
UpaḍḍhaSutta(SN45:02)
VāmaṃsakaSutta(MN47)
VitakkasaṇṭhānaSutta(MN20)
INDEXOFPĀLITERMSDISCUSSEDINTHE
NOTES
atthitā
anantajina
anamatagga
anusaya
antarāparinibbāyī
arahattamagga
asamayavimokkha
ālaya
idappaccayatā
ekāyano...maggo
kappa
tathāniavitathānianaññathāni
tadārammaṇaṃ
devadūta
dhammavicayasambojjhaṅga
dhammavitakka
dhammuddhaccaviggahitaṃmānasaṃ
natthitā
nāmarupa
nippapañcaṃ
nibbāna
nibbuta
paññā
papañcasaññāsaṅkhā
paritassanā
bojjhaṅga
bodhipakkhiyādhammā
bhavanetti
rāgavirāgatthaṃ
vitakkasaṅkhārasaṇṭhāna
vipassanāpubbaṅgamaṃsamathaṃ
vohārasamuccheda
saddhāmattaṃpemamattaṃ
samathapubbaṅgamaṃvipassanaṃ
samathavipassanaṃyuganaddhaṃ
AbouttheAuthor
BhikkhuBodhiisanAmericanBuddhistmonk,originallyfromNewYorkCity.
Hereceivedmonasticordinationin1972inSriLanka,wherehelivedforover
twenty years. He is the author, translator, or editor of many significant
publications including A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, The Middle
LengthDiscoursesoftheBuddha(MajjhimaNikaya),TheConnectedDiscourses
oftheBuddha(SamyuttaNikaya),andIntheBuddha’sWords.Heispresently
workingonacompletetranslationoftheAnguttaraNikaya.Helivesandteaches
at Chuang Yen Monastery in upstate New York. He also teaches at Bodhi
MonasteryinNewJersey.
AboutWisdom
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Thankyou.
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FoundationforthePreservationoftheMahayanaTradition(FPMT).
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©2005BhikkhuBodhi
Allrightsreserved.
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemor
transmittedinanyformbyanymeanswithoutthepriorpermissionofthecopyrightowner.Enquiriesshould
bemadetothepublisher.
eISBN:978-0-861-71996-9
ThepublisherthanksAltaMiraPressforkindlygrantingpermissiontoincludeinthisanthologyselections
fromNumericalDiscoursesoftheBuddha:AnAnthologyofSuttasfromtheAṅguttaraNikāya,translated
andeditedbyNyanaponikaTheraandBhikkhuBodhi.
Frontispiece:StandingBuddhaShakyamuni.Pakistan,Gandhara,secondcenturyA.D.Height250cm.
CourtesyoftheMihoMuseum,Japan.www.miho.jp
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